>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Human Coronaviruses (HCoVs) are found within the family Coronaviridae (genus, Coronavirus) and are enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses. Infections of humans by coronaviruses are not normally associated with severe diseases. However, the identification of the coronavirus responsible for the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV) showed that highly pathogenic coronaviruses can enter the human population. The SARS-CoV epidemic resulted in 8 422 cases with 916 deaths globally (case fatality rate: 10.9%). In 2004 a group 1 Coronavirus, designated Human Coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63), was isolated from a 7 month old Dutch child suffering from bronchiolitis. In addition, HCoV-NL63 causes disease in children (detected in approximately 10% of respiratory tract infections), the elderly and the immunocompromised. This study was designed to express the full length nucleocapsid (N) proteins of HCoV-NL63 and SARS-CoV for antibody production in an animal model. The NL63-N/pFN2A and SARSN/ pFN2A plasmid constructs were used for this study. The presence of the insert on the Flexi ® vector was confirmed by restriction endonuclease digest and sequence verification. The sequenced chromatographs obtained from Inqaba Biotec were consistent with sequences from the NCBI Gen_Bank. Proteins were expressed in a KRX Escherichia coli bacterial system and analysed using 15% SDS-PAGE and Western Blotting. Thereafter, GST-tagged proteins were purified ith an affinity column purification system. Purified fusion proteins were subsequently cleaved with Pro-TEV Plus protease, separated on 15% SDS-PAGE gel and stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue R250. The viral fusion proteins were subsequently used to immunize Balbc mice in order to produce polyclonal antibodies. A direct ELISA was used to analyze and validate the production of polyclonal antibodies by the individual mice. This is a preliminary study for development of diagnostic tools for the detection of HCoV-NL63 from patient samples collected in the Western Cape. / South Africa

The introduction of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) into the diagnostic setting has provided unprecedented opportunities in the field of respiratory medicine, not only because pathogens need no longer be cultivable for detection but also through improved sensitivity, specificity and turnaround time compared with traditional methods. The recent discovery of several novel respiratory viruses, such as human metapneumovirus (HMPV), human bocavirus and human coronaviruses (HCoVs) NL63 and HKU1 has nevertheless created significant challenges in respiratory diagnostics, as identification of which pathogens should be tested for is increasingly difficult. The recent discovery of two novel respiratory coronaviruses (HCoV-HKU1 and HCoV-NL63) presented the opportunity to undertake large scale clinical and epidemiologic study of these alongside two previously known respiratory coronaviruses, HCoV-229E and HCoV-OC43. Over 12,000 samples collected over three years were screened using a novel four-way multiplex real-time reverse transcription-PCR (RTPCR). Clinically, coronaviruses were similar to viruses currently included in routine diagnostics, with the exception of HCoV-229E which was identified as an opportunistic pathogen in immunocompromised hosts. Variability in detection frequencies of HCoVHKU1 and HCoV-OC43 was evident. The low detection frequencies of HCoVs, comparable to those of parainfluenza viruses 1 and 2 (which are included in the routine diagnostic screening panel) indicate a borderline case for inclusion of these pathogens in routine respiratory diagnostics. To investigate the epidemiology and clinical correlates of HMPV in Edinburgh, large scale retrospective screening of over 7000 respiratory samples collected over two years was conducted. Nucleotide sequencing of HMPV-positive samples was undertaken to determine phylogenetic relationships of circulating HMPV strains. HMPV comprises two genotypes, A and B. Comparisons of the clinical presentations of the two genotypes revealed little difference, with only the observation that sub-genotype B2 was more frequently associated with infection of immunocompromised patients. Detection frequencies and symptomatology associated with HMPV infections were comparable to respiratory viruses currently included in the routine diagnostic panel, mandating its inclusion in future diagnostic screening. A switch of the predominantly circulating genotype of HMPV was observed between respiratory seasons. This is a phenomenon more widely reported for the closely related respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV), which also comprises two circulating groups. To further investigate subtype (HRSV)/ genotype (HMPV) switching, evolutionary analyses of nucleotide sequence data generated from isolates collected from geographically disparate referral centres was undertaken. The fusion and attachment (G) genes were targeted, as these encode major surface proteins and are immunogenic. Analyses were by MCMC analyses using Bayesian Evolutionary Analyses of Sampling Trees (BEAST) software. Identification of positively selected sites was performed using Phylogenetic Analysis Maximum Likelihood (PAML). Switching of the predominantly circulating lineage does not arise for either virus due to emergence of novel strains, but through fluctuating circulation frequencies of pre-existing lineages which have been circulating for several decades, indicated by the time since the most recent common ancestor. Two HRSV-A lineages comprising genotypes undergoing turnover and replacement were identified. This finding is agreeable with serologic studies of the 1970s which reported three HRSV serogroups, two within HRSV-A and one within HRSV-B. HMPV and HRSV have similar mutation rates. Positively selected sites identified within the HRSV G gene were incongruent with those identified in a previous study, generating the hypothesis that immune evasion occurs within linear epitopes rather than at specific sites. A great deal of clinical and epidemiologic data was generated through this work, parallel studies of other respiratory viruses and through diagnostic screening results. To provide a robust indication of where resources should be diverted in terms of diagnostics, therapeutics and vaccine development, and to inform infection control measures and public health policy planning, quantification of the relative disease burden attributable to the most commonly detected respiratory viruses was calculated using the World Health Organization- endorsed Disability Adjusted Life Year (DALY) model. Relative disease burden was calculated in an age stratified manner to reflect the differences in sampling in different age groups. HRSV and influenza A were consistently one of the greatest causes of disease regardless of sampled population, although HRSV caused more disease in children under 5 than influenza A and B combined. Rhinoviruses and PIV-3 were significant pathogens in all groups except those aged 16-64 years; rhinoviruses were the leading cause of disease in the immunocompromised patient group. The potential for patient-specific diagnostic screening and guidance of interventions such as patient cohorting were clear.

Magister Scientiae (Medical Bioscience) - MSc(MBS) / Coronaviridae family is composed of a number of ribonucleic acid (RNA)-containing viruses currently classified into two genera, the coronavirus and torovirus. The family is classified together with the Arteviridae in the order Nidovirales. Coronaviruses are enveloped single stranded positive sense RNA viruses about 80-160 nm in diameter. The coronavirus is, as in the case of all positive sense RNA virus, a messenger, and the naked RNA is infectious. The 5′-two thirds of the genome encodes for a polyprotein that contains all the enzymes necessary for replication, whereas the 3′-one third encodes for all the structural proteins that mediate viral entry into the host cell. The structural proteins include spike (S), envelope (E), membrane (M) and nucleocapsid (N) proteins.Nucleocapsid protein is one of the most crucial structural components of coronaviruses;hence major attention has been focused on characterization of this protein. Some laboratories have demonstrated that this protein interferes with different cellular pathways, thus implying it to be a key regulatory component of the virus (Zakhartchouk, Viswanathan et al. 2005). Furthermore, it has been shown that severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-N protein interacts with cellular proteins, including cyclophilin A (CypA), heterogenous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) A1, human ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme, cyclin dependent kinase (CDK)-cyclin complex protein, Ikappaßalpha (IkBα), cytochrome (Cyt) P450 etc. For the purpose of this study, the focus is based on CypA interaction with human coronavirus (HCoV) NL63-N protein. These interactions might play a role in the pathology of HCoV-NL63. Using glutathione-S-transferase (GST), the interaction of CypA with the nucleocapsid protein can be clearly demonstrated to be direct and specific. Since the N protein is involved in viral RNA packaging to form a helical core, it is suffice to say that both NL63-N and CypA are possibly within the HCoV-NL63 replication/transcription complex and NL63-N/human CypA interaction might function in the regulation of HCoV-NL63 RNA synthesis. In addition, the results will demonstrate that HCoV-NL63-N has only a specific domain for interacting with CypA.

Magister Scientiae (Medical Bioscience) - MSc(MBS) / Insect-derived baculoviruses have been used extensively as a safe and versatile research model for transgenic protein expression. Preclinical studies have revealed the promising potential of Baculoviruses as a delivery vector for a variety of therapeutic applications, including vaccination, tissue engineering and cancer treatments. Coronaviruses are enveloped viruses containing linear, non-segmented ribonucleic acid. Human coronavirus NL63 was first discovered in the Netherlands in January 2004, where a 7-month-old girl presented with an acute respiratory tract infection that was later established to predominantly infect infants, the elderly and immunocompromised individuals.

Through the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, it has become clear that the development of antivirals is essential for the health and wellbeing of the population. In this study, novel active site protease inhibitors against SARS-CoV-2 were tested for their inhibitory activity against the viral 3-Chymotrypsin like protease through the means of FRET based enzymatic assays. Additionally, Compound 104 targeting the NS2B-NS3 protease was tested against Zika virus through yield reduction assays as a means to assess whether these assays are suitable for the assessment of peptide hybrid compounds in Zika virus.Novel compounds against SARS-CoV-2 were screened and five of the selected six active compounds were found to inhibit the viral protease at a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of below 0.075 µM.In Zika virus, the yield reduction assay was assessed and it was found that under the conditions tested, this assay is not suitable for the assessment of peptide hybrid compounds in Zika virus.The active novel compounds against SARS-CoV-2 should be taken for further assessment in cell based assays as the next step of development. Compound 104 should be assessed under different experimental conditions to identify whether different conditions can make this assay suitable for the intended use.

Le coronavirus humain 229E (HCoV-229E) est responsable de rhumes mais peut entraîner de graves complications respiratoires chez les personnes âgées ou atteintes d’une maladie Chronique. Les coronavirus sont des virus enveloppés avec un génome à ARN positif simple brin. Trois protéines virales sont ancrées dans l'enveloppe virale : la protéine spike (S), la protéine de membrane (M) et la protéine d’enveloppe (E). Les protéines M et E sont impliquées dans l'assemblage viral et la sécrétion. La protéine S s'assemble en trimères à la surface des virions et joue un rôle-clé dans l’entrée du virus dans sa cellule-cible. Elle est constituée de deux domaines, le domaine S1 responsable de la liaison du virus à son récepteur et le domaine S2 responsable de la fusion de l’enveloppe virale avec une membrane cellulaire. La fusion est activée par des protéases cellulaires par clivage de la protéine S. Dans un premier temps nous avons caractérisé ce mécanisme. Pour cela, nous avons d'abord cloné la protéine S d’un isolat circulant de HCoV-229E. Nous avons analysé le clivage protéolytique de la protéine S par des sérine-protéases de type trypsine conduisant au processus de fusion à l’aide de particules pseudotypées rétrovirales. Les Résidus arginine, sites potentiels de reconnaissance par les protéases et présents au niveau de la jonction S1/S2 ou de la région S2’ ont été mutés individuellement (R565N, R679N, R683N ou R687N) afin d’étudier leur rôle lors de l'activation de la fusion. Contrairement à d'autres coronavirus, l'activation permettant la fusion de HCoV-229E semble être un processus en une seule étape. En effet, seule la mutation R683N inhibe l’infection médiée par des sérine-protéases et le clivage à l'interface S1/S2 ne semble pas être un pré-requis. Les protéines S de coronavirus sont fortement N-glycosylées et constituent la principale cible des anticorps neutralisants. Nous avons analysé le rôle de la N-glycosylation du domaine S1 dans les mécanismes d'entrée et dans la neutralisation par des anticorps. L'analyse de la séquence de la protéine clonée montre la présence de 33 sites potentiels de N-glycosylation, dont 18 dans le domaine S1 qui ont été numérotés de N1 à N18. Ces 18 sites de N-glycosylation ont été abolis individuellement par mutagenèse dirigée. L’effet des mutations sur l'infectiosité virale a été évalué en utilisant des particules pseudotypées rétrovirales. L'infectiosité des mutants N6, N7 ou N9 est diminuée tandis que deux mutants N12 et N15 montrent une augmentation de l'infectiosité. Nous n'avons détecté aucune différence d'interaction de ces mutants avec une forme soluble du récepteur, l'aminopeptidase N (APN). Des expériences d’activation de la fusion virale à la surface cellulaire par la trypsine suggèrent que les glycanes présents aux positions 6, 7 et 9 sont impliquées dans la fusion virale, cependant nous n’avons détecté aucune différence de clivage de ces mutants par la trypsine. Pour le mutant N17 uniquement, la diminution partielle de l'infectiosité pourrait s'expliquer par une diminution de l'incorporation de la protéine S dans les pseudoparticules, due au mauvais repliement de la protéine, comme le montre le profil du mutant en western blot en conditions réductrices ou non.Nous avons ensuite évalué si les N-glycanes pouvaient moduler la reconnaissance de la protéine S par des anticorps neutralisants. Des pseudoparticules contenant les différents mutants ont été produites et utilisées pour infecter des cellules en présence d'anticorps neutralisants. Nos données montrent que les mutants N4, N10, N11, N12, N15, N16, N17, N18 réduisent la sensibilité des pseudoparticules à la neutralisation des anticorps. Dans ensemble, nos résultats suggèrent que les N-glycanes de la protéine S jouent un rôle important dans l'entrée virale et modulent la reconnaissance de la protéine par des anticorps neutralisants. / The human coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E) is a causative agent of common colds and can lead to severe respiratory complications in elderly persons and those with underlying disease. Coronavirus are enveloped viruses with a single stranded, positive-sense RNA genome. Three viral proteins are anchored in the viral enveloppe : the spike (S) protein, the membrane (M) protein and the enveloppe (E) protein. The M and E proteins are involved in viral assembly and secretion. The spike proteins assemble into trimers at the surface of the virions and play a key role in the early steps of viral infection. The spike protein comprised two domains, the S1 domain responsible for receptor binding and the S2 domain responsible for fusion of the viral enveloppe with the host cell membrane. Coronavirus fusion is activated by the proteolytic processing of the spike protein. First, we charaterized the proteolytic processing of the HCoV-229E spike protein by trypsin-like serine-proteases. To do so, we first cloned the spike protein of a circulating isolate of HCoV-229E. To investigate the role of the S1/S2 junction and the specific role of the 3 arginine residues located in the S2’ region in the proteolytic activation of HCoV-229E spike protein, the arginine residues present at these positions were mutated individually (R565N, R679N, R683N or R687N). Our results show that unlike other coronaviruses, HCoV-229E fusion activation appears to be a one step process. Indeed, the cleavage of the S1/S2 interface does not seem to be a pre-requisite, and the fusion activation strongly relies on the S2’ region, with R683 acting as the cleavage site.The spike protein is highly N-glycosylated and is the main target of neutralizing antibodies. We analysed the role of S1 domain N-glycosylation in the entry functions of the S protein and in neutralization by antibodies. Analysis of the sequence of the cloned protein shows the presence of 33 potential N-glycosylation sites, 18 being located in the S1 domain (numbered from N1 to N18). We mutated the 18 N-glycosylation sites of S1 individually by site-directed mutagenesis and studied the effect of the mutations using retroviral pseudotyped particles. Infectivity of the spike proteins with mutation either at the N6, N7 or N9 glycosylation site was strongly impaired. We did not detect any difference of interaction of these mutants with the soluble form of the receptor, the aminopeptidase N (APN). Results obtained by inducing the fusion of pseudoparticles at the cell surface with trypsin suggest that N-glycans located at the position N6, N7 and N9 are involved in viral fusion. However, the proteolytic processing of the protein required for fusion activation does not seem to be affected. Two mutants N12 and N15 show an increase of infectivity. Mutation of the N-glycosylation site N17 induces a partial decrease in infectivity. Indeed a decrease of spike protein incorporation into pseudoparticles was observed likely due to misfolding of the protein as shown by the profile of the mutant in western blot under reducing and non-reducing conditions. We next assessed if N-glycans can modulate the recognition of the spike protein by neutralizing antibodies. Pseudoparticles harbouring the different mutants were produced and used to infect cells in presence or absence of neutralizing antibodies. Our data demonstrate that mutants N4, N10, N11, N12, N15, N16, N17, N18 reduce the sensitivity of pseudoparticules to antibody neutralization. Taken together our results suggest that N-glycans of the S protein play an important role in viral entry and modulate the recognition of the protein by neutralizing antibodies.

<p>The human coronavirus NL63 was discovered in 2004 by a team of researchers in Amsterdam. Since its discovery it has been shown to have worldwide spread and affects mainly children, aged 0-5 years old, the immunocompromised and the elderly. Infection with HCoV-NL63 commonly results in mild upper respiratory tract infections and presents as the common cold, with symptoms including fever, cough, sore throat and rhinorrhoea. Lower respiratory tract findings are less common but may develop into more serious complications including bronchiolitis, pneumonia and croup. The primary function of the HCoV-NL63 nucleocapsid (N) protein is the formation of theprotective ribonucleocapsid core. For this particle to assemble, the N-protein undergoes N-N dimerization and then interacts with viral RNA. Besides the primary structural role of the Nprotein, it is also understood to be involved in viral RNA transcription, translation and replication, including several other physiological functions. The N-protein is also highly antigenic and elicits a strong immune response in infected patients. For this reason the N-protein may serve as a target for the development of diagnostic assays. We have used bioinformatic analysis to analyze the HCoV-NL63 N-protein and compared it to coronavirus N-homologues. This bioinformatic analysis provided the data to generate recombinant clones for expression in a bacterial system. We constructed recombinant clones of the N-protein of SARS-CoV and HCoV-NL63 and synthesized truncated clones corresponding to the N- and C-terminal of the HCoV-NL63 N-protein. These heterologously expressed proteins will serve the basis for several post-expression studies including characterizing the immunogenic epitope of the N-protein as well identifying any antibody crossreactivity between coronavirus species.</p>

<p>The human coronavirus NL63 was discovered in 2004 by a team of researchers in Amsterdam. Since its discovery it has been shown to have worldwide spread and affects mainly children, aged 0-5 years old, the immunocompromised and the elderly. Infection with HCoV-NL63 commonly results in mild upper respiratory tract infections and presents as the common cold, with symptoms including fever, cough, sore throat and rhinorrhoea. Lower respiratory tract findings are less common but may develop into more serious complications including bronchiolitis, pneumonia and croup. The primary function of the HCoV-NL63 nucleocapsid (N) protein is the formation of theprotective ribonucleocapsid core. For this particle to assemble, the N-protein undergoes N-N dimerization and then interacts with viral RNA. Besides the primary structural role of the Nprotein, it is also understood to be involved in viral RNA transcription, translation and replication, including several other physiological functions. The N-protein is also highly antigenic and elicits a strong immune response in infected patients. For this reason the N-protein may serve as a target for the development of diagnostic assays. We have used bioinformatic analysis to analyze the HCoV-NL63 N-protein and compared it to coronavirus N-homologues. This bioinformatic analysis provided the data to generate recombinant clones for expression in a bacterial system. We constructed recombinant clones of the N-protein of SARS-CoV and HCoV-NL63 and synthesized truncated clones corresponding to the N- and C-terminal of the HCoV-NL63 N-protein. These heterologously expressed proteins will serve the basis for several post-expression studies including characterizing the immunogenic epitope of the N-protein as well identifying any antibody crossreactivity between coronavirus species.</p>

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Acute respiratory infections (ARI) continue to be the leading cause of acute illnesses worldwide and remain the most important cause of infant and young children mortality. Many viruses such as rhinoviruses, influenza viruses, parainfluenza viruses, respiratory syncytial viruses, adenoviruses and coronaviruses are deemed to be the etiological agents responsible for ARI’s in children. The recently discovered coronaviruses HCoV-HKU1 and HCoV-NL63 contribute significantly to the hospitalization of children with ARI’s. HCoV-NL63 was first identified in 2004, as the pathogen responsible for the hospitalization of a 7 month old child presenting with coryza, conjunctivitis and fever. Since then a significant amount of knowledge has been gained in the clinical spectrum on this virus, however HCoV-NL63 is still not well characterized on the molecular and proteomic level. This dissertation focuses on bringing about this characterization by cloning the HCoV-NL63 Nucleocapsid gene to be expressed in a bacterial system and transfecting the Nucleocapsid, Membrane and Envelope genes into a Mammalian cell culture system in order for its respective proteins to be expressed. With the use of Bioinformatic analytic tools certain characteristics of HCoV-NL63 Nucleocapsid, Membrane and Envelope proteins are able to be identified, as well as certain motifs and/or regions that are important in the functioning of these proteins. By comparing the results obtained for HCoV-NL63 N,M and E to other well studied coronavirus homologous will enlighten us on the potential role(s) of these proteins in determining HCoV-NL63 pathogenicity and infectivity. vi Although certain functions of these proteins can be deduced by the means of bioinformatics analysis, it is still imperative for it to be extensively characterized In Vitro. This will therefore form a fundamental step in the development of many other projects, which unfortunately fall outside the scope of this M.Sc thesis.

Magister Scientiae (Medical Bioscience) - MSc(MBS) / The human coronavirus NL63 was discovered in 2004 by a team of researchers in Amsterdam. Since its discovery it has been shown to have worldwide spread and affects mainly children, aged 0-5 years old, the immunocompromised and the elderly. Infection with HCoV-NL63 commonly results in mild upper respiratory tract infections and presents as the common cold, with symptoms including fever, cough, sore throat and rhinorrhoea. Lower respiratory tract findings are less common but may develop into more serious complications including bronchiolitis, pneumonia and croup. The primary function of the HCoV-NL63 nucleocapsid (N) protein is the formation of theprotective ribonucleocapsid core. For this particle to assemble, the N-protein undergoes N-N dimerization and then interacts with viral RNA. Besides the primary structural role of the Nprotein, it is also understood to be involved in viral RNA transcription, translation and replication, including several other physiological functions. The N-protein is also highly antigenic and elicits a strong immune response in infected patients. For this reason the N-protein may serve as a target for the development of diagnostic assays. We have used bioinformatic analysis to analyze the HCoV-NL63 N-protein and compared it to coronavirus N-homologues. This bioinformatic analysis provided the data to generate recombinant clones for expression in a bacterial system. We constructed recombinant clones of the N-protein of SARS-CoV and HCoV-NL63 and synthesized truncated clones corresponding to the N- and C-terminal of the HCoV-NL63 N-protein. These heterologously expressed proteins will serve the basis for several post-expression studies including characterizing the immunogenic epitope of the N-protein as well identifying any antibody crossreactivity between coronavirus species. / South Africa