This research is aimed at evaluating the adequacy and effectiveness of the legal framework dealing with human trafficking in South Africa. To achieve this purpose, a comprehensive diachronic as well as contemporary overview of the punishment and prevention of human trafficking in South Africa as well as in the legal systems of the US, Germany and Nigeria is provided. An overview of the history of slavery and an analysis of the modern conceptualisation of human trafficking indicate that human trafficking is a highly complex concept, and that there are various approaches to the understanding of the concept of human trafficking. There are various definitions of trafficking found in international instruments of which the most important has been identified as that contained in the Palermo Protocol. The definitions vary also because trafficking is closely related to the phenomena of migration, slavery and smuggling of humans. The study further identifies some significant root causes of trafficking generally, as well as specific, to the four selected regions. It was found that in South Africa – similar to the history of slavery in the jurisdictions of the US, Germany and Nigeria – colonisation and the institution of slavery and, more particularly in South Africa, the legacy of the apartheid regime has had an impact on modern human trafficking. The research concedes that although common-law crimes, statutes and transitional legislation can be utilized to challenge some trafficking elements, these offences are not comprehensive enough to amply deal with the crime’s complexities and provide only a fragmented approach to combating the crime. The study shows that South Africa needs to adopt specific and comprehensive anti-trafficking legislation that is based essentially on the provisions of the Palermo Protocol, that is, the draft TIP Bill. Although the Bill is a major improvement on the provisions in the Palermo Protocol as well as on certain aspects of the anti-trafficking legislation in the US, Germany and Nigeria, the Bill can still be improved, especially with regard to more effective victim assistance and the combating of local-specific vulnerability factors. Anti-trafficking efforts undertaken in the US, Germany and Nigeria which may be of value also for the adoption of anti-trafficking legislation, law enforcement and other strategies in South Africa, are further identified. iv The research further establishes also that international, regional and sub-regional instruments on trafficking and related aspects of trafficking provide guidelines for developing effective strategies to deal with trafficking within the region. The counter-trafficking strategies as found in treaties (including conventions), protocols, declarations and resolutions – those focussing specifically on combating trafficking and those with a human-rights focus – oblige states to prosecute traffickers, protect people vulnerable to trafficking as well as those already trafficked and create structures for prevention. Regional instruments specifically formulated to combat trafficking as well as instruments that make reference to the issue of trafficking in persons may further provide the basis for long-term strategies to combat human trafficking. However, it was found that although South Africa has adopted many cooperative mechanisms in the form of direct bilateral or multilateral agreements, as well as international and regional treaties and conventions, the jurisdiction has not as yet implemented comprehensive strategies to combat human trafficking. The introduction of legislation to combat human trafficking, and various other strategies envisaged in the TIP Bill and also recommendations suggested in this thesis, should be considered by parliament as a matter of priority. A comprehensive response to human trafficking which includes adequate protection of victims is required in terms of various constitutional imperatives identified in this research. / Criminal and Procedural Law / LL. D.

Trafficking women for sexual abuse has been a serious concern worldwide, particularly over the last two decades. The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimated that illicit profits of human trafficking may be as high as $32 billion. However, the international media community has scarcely focused on North Korean women defectors and victims of human trafficking, despite the severity of the issue. More than two million North Koreans, predominantly women, have crossed borders to enter China from starvation. Among those women migrants, about 80% to 90% of them were abducted by traffickers at the border between North Korea and China, and the traffickers sold them to the Chinese sex industry or Chinese men who are unable to find a woman as a wife or a sex slave.This cross-cultural textual analysis examined South Korean and Western (U.S. and British) newspaper coverage of North Korean women as victims of human trafficking to discover similarities and differences in those countries’ news frames. The analysis has shown that politics was a crucial factor in the coverage of the issue. However, by generally failing to report on the fundamental causes of the trafficking, such as inequality between genders, both Western and South Korean newspapers perpetuated hegemonic masculinity and failed to inform and educate people about the grave situations of North Korean women defectors and victims of human trafficking. This study recommends that in reporting the trafficking issues, journalists must be able to observe objectively, not within ideologies or frames provided by politicians.

Public awareness is crucial in the fight against human trafficking, but little academic research looks at the public policy implications of different types of messaging the public may be using in recognizing human trafficking. Using policy feedback theory as the theoretical lens, the purpose of this quantitative study was to compare mean awareness scores for both film and social media to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the scores and their degree of public awareness. Data were collected through an online survey, which included questions related to both film and social media, using a participant pool service. The survey measured awareness of human trafficking with a sample of 100 participants who included diverse backgrounds, ethnicities, races, genders, and ages. These data were analyzed using an independent-samples t test where the participants' awareness scores were compared for the 2 awareness strategies tested. The findings indicated that there is a statistically significant difference between film and social media at creating awareness of the phenomenon, with film being statistically higher. The implications for positive social change stemming from these results include recommendations for further research to be performed on human trafficking, specifically human trafficking awareness strategies. With improved anti-trafficking awareness strategies and a more informed public, the number of individuals affected by human trafficking will diminish and, eventually, the issue will cease to exist.

Victims of human trafficking may be exploited for prostitution, sweatshop labor, domestic work, and as child soldiers for armed conflicts. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, "after drug dealing, human trafficking is tied with the illegal arms industry as the second largest criminal industry in the world today, and it is the fastest growing, with an annual profit of $32 billion" (U.S Department of Health and Human Services, 2004). This thesis looks at policies that are in place to prevent, prosecute and protect against human trafficking in ten countries from around the world that have changed to Tier 1 countries according to the U.S. State Department's annual Trafficking In Persons report. This study analyzed if there were trends in what kind of policies were implemented by state's governments that allowed them to be credited with a Tier 1 ranking, as well as, compared policies that were in place the year before the state changed Tier rankings. The data showed no definite trend in what it took to become ranked as a Tier 1 country, however the majority of the countries data showed that as long as improvements were made from the previous year then that country would move to a higher ranking. This research demonstrates that the TIP report does not consistently rank countries using the same standards. However, it proves that the shaming and global pressure through sanctions that the United States puts on other countries through the annual publishing of the TIP report does make a positive difference when it comes to countries working to combat human trafficking. / McAnulty College and Graduate School of Liberal Arts; / Graduate Center for Social and Public Policy / MA; / Thesis;

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Open University. BLDSC no. DXN104862.

I denna examensuppsats har jag granskat bestämmelsen om människohandel i 4 kap. 1 a § brottsbalken (1962:700) (BrB) samt undersökt vilket eller vilka rekvisit i lag­stift­ning­en som medför särskilda pro­blem för dess tolkning och tillämpning. Syftet med upp­satsen har varit att presentera förslag på hur problemen kan lösas genom att ta fram ett lag­förslag med de ändringar som jag anser är nöd­vän­di­ga för att få en mer lättil­lämpad lag­­stiftning. Syftet har även varit att undersöka hur dessa än­dring­ar bör göras för att säker­ställa att bestämmelsen överensstämmer med de ända­mål som Sverige åta­git genom ett antal inter­natio­n­ella instrument. Lagförslaget presenteras i en bilaga nedan (Bilaga A). Utifrån det ovan beskrivna syftet är uppsatsen upplägg enligt följande. I upp­sats­ens första kapitel presenteras en bakgrund samt en problemformulering där jag redogjort kort för bestämmelsen om människo­handel i 4 kap. 1 a § BrB samt för de problem som tidi­gare uppmärksammats vad gäller tolkningen och tillämpningen av be­stäm­melsen. Det handlar om lagstiftningens utformning och hur den bidrar till att be­stäm­melsen är så pass svårtillämpad att det finns en risk att den inte lever upp till de ändamål som kom­mer till uttryck i de inter­na­tion­ella instrument som Sverige å­ta­git. Det kan även medföra att lag­stiftningen uppfattas i termer av ”en vingklippt ängel”, vilket innebär att lag­stif­ta­rens ambitioner om att kunna bekämpa män­nisko­handel på ett effektivt sätt inte kan till­godo­ses till följd av de brister som den nuvarande utformningen bidrar till. Utöver detta pre­sen­teras även metodvalet för uppsatsen som är en rättsdogmatisk metod utifrån ett straff­­­rättsligt perspektiv. I kapitlet har jag även redogjort för de avgränsningar som gjorts för upp­sats­ens fram­ställning samt presenterat en disposition för de övriga kapitlen i uppsatsen. I uppsatsen andra kapitel följer en redogörelse för människohandelns utbredning både inom Sverige samt på ett globalt plan, där fokus varit riktat mot att visa på de kännetecken som är typiska för människohandelsbrott. Av det material som redovisats i kapitlet framgår att människohandel är en omfattande brottslighet som tar sig uttryck på många olika sätt. Det som är gemensamt för alla former av människo­handel är att det är fråga om brottsoffer som på något sätt tvingats in en form av exploaterande, vilket kan innebära allt från att prostitution, tvångsarbete, kriminalitet eller tiggeri. I uppsatsen tredje kapitel redovisas gällande rätt i förhållande till bestämmelsen i 4 kap. 1 a § BrB med fokus på såväl internationell som nationell rätt. Det internationella instrument som är centralt för hur en nationell bestämmelse mot människohandel bör utformas är det s.k. Palermo­­proto­kollet, av vilket det bl.a. framgår vilken definition av människohandel samt vilka ändamål som ska gälla för utformningen av en nationell lagstiftning. Utöver de internationella instrument som presenterats i kapitlet har jag även redogjort för den svenska bestämmelsen om människohandel i 4 kap. 1 a § BrB samt för de tre momenten om handelsåtgärder, otillbörliga medel och exploa­te­rings­syfte som utgör huvud­re­kvi­si­t­en i lagstiftningen. I kapitlet har jag också redo­gjort för de bestämmelser som är näraliggande 4 kap. 1 a § BrB, bl.a. om koppleri­ i 6 kap. 12 § BrB samt om människo­smuggling i 20 kap. 8-9 §§ ut­län­nings­lagen (2005:716) (UtlL). I uppsatsen fjärde kapitel följer en redogörelse för tolkningen och tillämpningen av 4 kap. 1 a § BrB, där jag granskat ett urval av de rättsfall som tillkommit efter att bestäm­mel­s­en om människohandel i 4 kap. 1 a § BrB revideras 2010. Syftet med detta är att under­­söka vilket eller vilka rekvisit i lagstiftningen som innebär svårigheter för tolkningen och tillämpningen av bestämmelsen. Utifrån detta material har det varit möj­ligt att dra vissa slutsatser som sedan kommit att utgöra underlag för diskussionsdelen i det nästkommande kapitlet. Slutligen i uppsatsen femte kapitel förs en diskussion utifrån det material som pre­sen­terats i de övriga kapitlen. En sammanfattning av diskussionsdelen är att jag funnit att en särskild översyn krävs för två av de tre momenten. Det handlar om re­kvi­si­t­et om otillbörliga medel samt det s.k. exploateringssyftet. Utifrån detta har jag sedan fört en diskussion om vilka ändringar som jag anser är nödvändiga samt hur dessa bör göras för att de ovan nämnda ändamålen ska efterlevas på ett adekvat sätt. Mitt förslag är att re­kvi­sitet om de otillbörliga medlen bör förtydligas och att det därmed är en god idé att an­passa rekvisitet ytterligare efter Palermoprotokollets definition av vad som ut­gör ett sådant medel. Utöver detta anser jag även att exploateringssyftet bör revideras genom att låta införa ett generellt uppsåtsrekvisit i lagstiftningen. Syftet med detta är att under­lät­ta för uppsåtsbedömningen vid prövningen av 4 kap. 1 a § BrB. Kapitlet avslutas sedan med övriga kommentarer som jag ansett vara relevanta för diskussionsdelen. / In the following Master’s Thesis, I have made an examination on the Swedish re­gu­la­tion on human trafficking in Chapter 4 Section 1 of the Swedish Penal Code (1962:700) (BrB) and scrutinized which of the necessary prerequisites within the regulation that in­du­ces specific problems for its judicial interpretation and the adjudication process. The purpose for the Master’s Thesis has been to present a bill with the proper changes, which I believe are necessary to gain a better administration of the law. The purpose of the Master’s Thesis has also been to examine how the amendment can alter a more appro­priate use so that it corresponds with the commitments that Sweden has signed through different international treaties. The bill is presented in Swedish in an appendix below (Bilaga A).             In the first chapter of the Master’s Thesis, I present a background of the regulation and the problems that have come to be associated with its judicial interpretation and adju­dication process. The central issue regarding the two has to do with the design of the regulation, leading to difficulties with the administration of the law. This could lead to the risk of not fulfilling the commitments within the international treaties that Sweden has signed. It could even mean that the regulation only is viewed on as an “angel without wings”, meaning that the will and ambition of the legislator on comba­ting human trafficking in an effective way is undermined due to the flaws of the regulation.             In the second chapter, I have presented the recent findings from different reports and in­vestigations on human trafficking, both in Sweden but also on a global perspective. From these findings, it has been shown that human trafficking is a comprehensive cri­mi­nality that expresses itself in many ways. The common trait of all forms of human traffic­king is that the victims of crime are somehow forced to comply in some form of ex­ploitation. The exploitation can include everything from prostitution, forced labor, parti­cipation in criminal acts or mendicancy.             In the Master’s thesis’ third chapter, the current applicable law is presented in com­parison with the regulation in Chapter 4 Section 1 of the Swedish Penal Code, focusing on both the international commitments that Sweden has signed and national law. The central international treaty that has given most impact on how the national regulations should be designed is the so-called Palermo Protocol. The Protocol contains both a global definition of what is to be recognized as human trafficking as well as which purposes that a national law should conform in order to fulfill an appropriate inter­pretation of the protocol. Other than mentioned above, the chapter contains a thorough pre­sentation on the regulation in Chapter 4 Section 1 of the Swedish Penal Code and its main necessary prerequisites, actions, improper means and purpose of exploitation, as well as a presentations of the regulations that are relevant when comparing the re­gulation on human trafficking, such as the regulation on procuration in Chapter 6 Section 12 of the Swedish Penal Code and the regulations on trafficking in persons in Chapter 20 Section 8 and Section 9 of the Swedish Aliens Act (2005:716) (UtlL).             In the forth chapter, I have examined some of the decisions that have been after the last review of the regulation on human trafficking in 2010. The purpose of this exa­mi­nation has been to scrutinize which of the main necessary prerequisites that have caused bigger or minor difficulties for the judicial interpretation and the adjudication process of the law.          In the final chapter, a discussion is brought up based upon the material that has been pre­sented in chapters above. A summary on what my conclusions are is that I believe that a review is necessary on two of the three main necessary prerequisites, mainly the im­proper means and the purpose of exploitation. Based on these conclusions, I have con­tinued bringing up a discussion on what changes that I believe are crucial, as well as how these changes should be done so that the regulation is in accordance with the above-mentioned commitments. In my opinion, the necessary prerequisite on improper means needs to be more properly defined, meaning that it should be designed more in accord­ance with the Palermo Protocol than it is today. Also regarding the prerequisite on purpose of exploitation, it is my belief that a general intention requisite should be inserted within the regulation, with the purpose of facilitating for the judicial review of the law. The chapter finishes of with a section of other remarks that I find beneficial for the discussion.

This study was carried out in order to get an understanding on how the victims of human trafficking are taken care of in the EU and if the union’s ambition open up for the victim’s empowerment and thereafter also decreases the risk of the survivors to be utilized again in the same or different way. The idea derives from EU’s focus on establishing minimum standards that shall protect and support victims of human trafficking. Through a thematic text analysis where John Friedmann’s disempowerment model was applied, the ambition was to answer the research questions how does the EU work in order to protect and support the victims of human trafficking and does this effort open up for the possibility of the victims to take control over their own lives and livelihood; i.e. being empowered. The result shows that EU’s work to protect and support victims of human trafficking open up for the possibility for the victims to take control over their lives – but that there needs to be similar studies of other actors and agencies in order to see if the work is comprehensive enough and supplements what EU can do.

The subject of human trafficking has been widely studied, but primarily from the perspective of the victims. This study, rather than focusing on the victims, focused on the NGOs that are part of the counter-trafficking movement. In a content analysis of the websites of 24 counter-trafficking organizations, the priorities of faith-based NGOs and secular NGOs were compared. Additionally, the study examined which theory of development a secular or faithbased organization was more likely to adopt. Findings indicate that the priorities of faith-based and secular NGOs do differ; secular NGOs mention more concrete priorities while faith-based NGOs are more vague. Secular NGOs also leaned more towards the radical theory of development, while faith-based NGOs did not seem to follow any particular theory of development. / Department of Sociology

Thesis (PhD--Development Studies)--University of Auckland, 2008. / Includes bibliographical references.

Trafficking in human beings is a major problem worldwide. Human trafficking is as a result of a complex set of interrelated push and pull factors. Push factors includeinter alia poverty, a lack of opportunities, dislocation of families, gender, racial and ethnic inequalities and the break-up of families. Research shows that pull factors include the promise of a better life, consumer aspirations and lack of information on the risks involved, established patterns of migration, porous borders and fewer constraints on travel. It is as a result of the global epidemic of this trafficking in persons that certain instruments on an international level as well as legislation on a national level have been enacted. The question which arises is: are these pieces of legislation effective in dealing with the scourge of human trafficking? Every legislation passed will have its strengths, as well as weaknesses but the main objective of such legislation should always be to combat, criminalise and prosecute the specific criminal act. Furthermore, the enacted legislation should be designed to effectively combat the challenges which threaten to exacerbate the criminal act. Failing to fulfil this intention will render such legislation nugatory. This treatise will be looking at various international instruments that have been passed abd v adopted by various countries, which specifically deal with trafficking in humans generally and specifically in relation to the children. International instruments that will be discussed include inter alia, slavery Convention, Convention on the Rights of the child, Worst forms or Child Labour Convention, Parlemo Protocol, United Nations Transnational Organised Crime Protocol to mention but a few. All these instruments have in a way dealt with and made provisions for the criminalisation of the act of trafficking in humans and a the scrounge of trafficking escalates the international governments strive to enact instruments that are going to be able to curtail this pandemic of trafficking. As more focus will be on the South African legislation this treatise is also going to examine all the relevant piece of legislation that have been passed by the South African government in order to deal with human trafficking. These will include the discussion of the Constitution, Child Care Act, Children’s Act, Children’s Amendment Act, Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) and Related matters. Amendment Act Prevention of Organised Crime Act as well as the Prevention and combating of Trafficking in Persons Bill. The treatise will listen critically discuss the Bill in so far as its strengths and weaknesses are concerned.