While free (breakpoint) chlorination is widely utilized in humanitarian water treatment, a main challenge limiting its effective application is in determining the initial dose to satisfy both health requirements and aesthetic considerations (i.e. taste and odour). International guidelines and studies showed varying recommendations for the initial chlorine dose and many did not consider chlorine decay during water transportation and storage for up to 24 hours. The main objective of this thesis is to develop a tool for humanitarian staff to accurately determine the initial chlorine dose for achieving free chlorine residual (FCR) objectives with the limited instrumentation and information in the field. The first manuscript included in the thesis gathered and evaluated seven basic chlorine decay models’ applicability in humanitarian treatment contexts. All seven models were found able to accurately describe chlorine decay in water representative of humanitarian treatment contexts with more than half of the regression resulted in R2 over 0.95. However, each model had its own limitations, which were discussed. The second manuscript involved conducting extensive chlorine decay tests in water with different characteristics, explored the relationships between the estimated chlorine decay constant and several water parameters including pH, turbidity, ultraviolet absorption at 254 nm wavelength (UVA254), temperature and 30-minute chlorine demand. It was found that the UVA254 of water followed linear and exponential relationships with the decay constant in Feben and Taras’s empirical model and that in the first order model respectively. Arrhenius-type relations were verified between the decay constant and water’s temperature. A model developed to predict FCR decay in water with known 30-minute chlorine demand accurately predicted FCR level in synthetic water (with humic acid being the main constituent) but underpredicted FCR decay in water with additional chlorine consuming matter. Further research on additional chlorine decay mechanisms are needed to expand the applicability of the model. / Graduate / 2021-04-13

Natural disasters and conflicts are not gender neutral. They have a different impact on women, girls, boys and men, deepening and intensifying already existing, socially constructed, cultural norms and gender roles. However, crisis represents a “turning point” that shakes balances and traditions, unbalancing the fixed social structure, leaving room for women to exit the crisis empowered, rather than wounded. A systemic integration of a gender-sensitive approach into humanitarian and disaster reliefs operations wound tackle pre-existing inequalities, ensuring an effective quality response and recover from disasters.

As climate change progresses, the number of extreme weather events are predicted to rise and generate an increase in climate related humanitarian emergencies. These emergencies result in complex displacements of populations, unsanitary conditions, and a corresponding increase in diarrheal disease risks within affected communities. Because diarrheal disease ranks as one of the major contributors to overall morbidity and mortality rates following a disaster, it is critically important that aid agencies are prepared to make informed decisions regarding the prevention of disease transmission. As water is one of the main transmission routes of diarrheal disease, providing clean and safe drinking water is acknowledged as one of the most important and effective interventions. Once we acknowledge the importance of this resource, we also acknowledge the need for quick, simple, and effective water treatment solutions. The term point-of-use (POU) water treatment defines water treatment systems and technologies that are used at the point of consumption. These systems often treat relatively small batches of water and are operated by the consumer or head of household. POU water treatment systems and safe storage techniques have been shown to improve water quality and decrease diarrheal disease incidence and are therefore an effective option in humanitarian emergencies. One type of POU water treatment product - coagulant/disinfection products (CDPs) which are also known as flocculant/disinfectants, have been increasingly used in response to humanitarian emergencies. CDPs are shown to provide microbial and aesthetic (i.e. turbidity reductions) water quality improvements and post-treatment protective free chlorine residuals (FCRs). The relative simplicity of CDPs allows quick intervention for communities with few resources plus CDPs are durable, small, and ready for quick deployment. However, limited research has been completed on the different CDPs on the market or on methods to improve them. This thesis explores CDPs and their role in emergency response through two interlinked perspectives: 1. First, in an overall review compiled as Manuscript #1 (Chapter 2), I assess the existing and current CDPs, how they perform in comparison to global water treatment guidelines, and where their limitations lie. The outcomes of this study provide a simple analysis for aid agencies to carefully select the CDPs used in emergency interventions; and 2. I take the findings from the research completed in Chapter 2 to develop a computational modelling approach to improving the residual protective capacity of the CDPs. These results are presented in Manuscript #2 (Chapter 3) . The outcomes are intended to serve two purposes: (1) to provide a baseline computational model to guide and encourage improvement and testing of these products by manufacturers; and (2) to provide an educational tool to facilitate understanding of these products and the key functions taking place during their treatment. This thesis addressed the research objective of invoking conversation surrounding effective emergency response through developing solutions to provide clean drinking water in at-risk communities during complex humanitarian emergencies. / Graduate

Gender-based violence (GBV) and violence against children are pervasive and destructive globally, but the exacerbation of violence in emergency contexts makes addressing them an urgent priority in humanitarian action. However, despite recognition of overlapping risks and intervention opportunities, child protection programming and GBV programming have hitherto followed discrete trajectories, resulting in adolescent (aged between 10 and 19 years) girls falling between the domains, despite their heightened vulnerability to GBV. This research explores how humanitarian protection interventions address GBV against displaced adolescent girls in Jordan. Data is collected using detailed, semi-structured interviews with four specialist humanitarian practitioners from leading organisations in child protection and GBV programming within the refugee response in Jordan. Qualitative, grounded coding and analysis is conducted on the transcribed data to identify key themes and patterns. The findings report child marriage, domestic violence and sexual violence as the most prevalent forms of GBV against adolescents. The social ecology of the girls is explored and salient risk factors at each level are identified, including lack of awareness, cultural norms and stigma, and absence of data information to direct programming. Corresponding protection interventions, including case-management, capacity-building of service providers and awareness-raising are identified, and the limited extent to which they empower adolescent girls is debated. Finally, the nexus between child protection and GBV programming is discussed, and key challenges, including coordination between child protection and GBV policies, campaigns, services and actors, decreasing funding and nationalisation of services, an absence of meaningful participation of adolescent girls in programming, and the organisations’ issue-focused approach, are identified and explored in the context of empowerment of adolescent girls. The research concludes that addressing GBV by meaningful participation of adolescents, adopting rights-based approaches, and proactive coordination of protection actors, is essential for the empowerment of adolescent girls to be agents of their own protection.