Orientador: Regina Buffon / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Química / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-18T08:53:24Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Bannwart_SandraCecilia_M.pdf: 812230 bytes, checksum: b6487d1c0a090fc43a9884c0ab756e15 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: Analisou-se a solução catalítica de um catalisador industrial de hidroformilação de olefinas através de espectroscopia RMN de P, eletroforese capilar, cromatografia em camada delgada, cromatografia gasosa acoplada à espectrometria de massas e espectrometria de massas de alta resolução, a fim de tentar determinar a natureza das espécies de ródio presentes na solução e entender o que estaria causando a desativação do catalisador. Contudo, as únicas afirmações que podem ser feitas é que a solução contém trifenilfosfina livre (TPP) e seu óxido. Análises da solução do catalisador reciclado antes e após lavagem com trietanolamina (TEA), por espectrometria de massas de alta resolução, mostraram a diminuição do pico em 515 m/z após a lavagem do catalisador reciclado (de 52 % no catalisador reciclado antes da lavagem para 9% após a lavagem com TEA), sugerindo que a espécie associada a esse pico seria a responsável pela desativação. Entretanto, sua análise por MSMS permitiu a identificação apenas da TPP livre, confirmando a grande complexidade do sistema. Como segunda etapa deste trabalho, foram avaliados diferentes tratamentos realizados na solução catalítica (que contém um catalisador industrial de hidroformilação de olefinas (Rh/TPP), também denominado de catalisador reciclado) capazes de reativá-la. Dentre os tratamentos empregados, destaca-se a solução de TEA ¿ 10% (1 parte catalisador: 1 parte solução TEA - 10% (massa) em água (v/v)). Testes catalíticos na hidroformilação do 1-hexeno mostraram que, sem tratamento, o catalisador reciclado permitiu alcançar um TON de 20.773 em 4 h e que, após tratamento com esta solução, o aumento do TON foi significativo (29.995), equiparando-se ao número de Turnover do catalisador Padrão, que está livre de desativadores (TON = 29.057). Esses resultados permitem concluir que a desativação ocorre principalmente devido à presença de cloretos ou ácidos carboxílicos e que o processo desenvolvido é eficiente para a reativação do catalisador / Abstract: A solution of an industrial catalyst for the hydroformylation of olefins was analyzed by 31P NMR spectroscopy, capillary electrophoresis, thin layer chromatography, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and high resolution mass spectrometry in order to investigate the nature of the rhodium species and try to understand the causes of catalyst deactivation. However, only free triphenylphosphine (TPP) and its oxide could be precisely detected. Analyses of the recycled catalyst before and after washing with triethanolamine (TEA), by high resolution mass spectrometry, showed a decrease of the peak in 515 m/z after washing (52% of the recycled catalyst before washing to 9% after washing with TEA), suggesting that this peak could be associated to the species responsible for catalyst deactivation. However, MSMS analysis of this peak showed only free TPP, confirming the complexity of the system under study. In the second phase of this study, different treatments of the catalytic solution (containing the industrial catalyst for hydroformylation of olefins (Rh / TPP), also called recycled catalyst), susceptible to reactivate it, were evaluated. Among the tested treatments, a solution of TEA - 10% (1 part catalyst / 1 part solution TEA-10% (mass) in water (v / v)) showed good results. Without this treatment, the recycled catalyst presented a TON = 20.773, in 4 h, in the hydroformylation of 1-hexene. After treatment, the observed TON was 29.995, similar to that obtained with a standard catalyst, free of deactivators (TON = 29.057). Therefore, we can conclude that deactivation takes place mainlly due to the presence of chlorides or carboxylic acids, and the developed procedure is effective for the reactivation of the catalyst / Mestrado / Quimica Inorganica / Mestre em Química

Abstract Thirty phosphane ligands were prepared and characterized. Aryl groups of the phosphane ligands were modified through change in functionality. The side chains were the following: trifluoromethylphenyl, selenomethylphenyl, 9-anthryl, alkyl-substituted aryl groups, and pyridyl and alkyl groups. In addition, three chromium carbonyl complexes of potentially bidentate arylphosphanes containing nitrogen heteroatoms were prepared and characterized. Characterization of the isolated complexes verified the monodentate coordination from phosphorus and two bidentate coordination modes, (P,N)-bound and (N,N')-bound. Ligands and complexes were characterized by 1H, 13C{1H}, 31P{1H}, and two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy, X-ray crystallography, and mass spectrometry. The 13C{1H} and 31P{1H} NMR spectra, and calculated cone angles of the o-alkyl-substituted aryl- and arylalkylphosphane ligands provided valuable parameters, which could be plotted against catalytic results in the search for correlations between the structures and catalytic behavior of ligands. Correlations were found between the parameters and the catalytic behavior of Rh-catalysts modified with the o-alkyl-substituted phenylphosphanes. The research reported here was directed toward the preparation and characterization of phosphane ligands which would favor the formation of isobutanal in propene hydroformylation. The o-alkyl-substituted arylphosphanes, which were studied most throughly, gave the highest selectivity to isobutanal but at the cost of activity. Linear n-butanal was still the main product, though only barely. Alkyl substituents in meta position increased the activity of propene hydroformylation even up to the level with the reference ligand PPh3, but, the selectivity decreased simultaneously.

In recent years two-phase catalysis has been established as a new field of catalyzed processes and has achieved industrial-scale importance in olefin hydroformylation. Two-phase reactions have a number of advantages, for example, ease of separation of catalyst and product, catalysts can be tailored to the particular problem, use of special properties and effects of water as a solvent, and low environmental impact. For higher olefins (* C6), the reaction suffers low activity due to low water solubility of higher olefins. Tricesium analog of TPPTS, m,m,m-trisulfonated triphenylphosphine, was synthesized and fully characterized. Two-phase olefin hydroformylation with Rh(acac)(CO)2 was investigated. The results indicated that both activity and selectivity (linear to branch aldehyde ratio) are similar to Rh/TPPTS system. The salt effect showed that increase the solution ionic strength will increase the selectivity and decrease the activity in the olefin hydroformylation with TPPTS. A new surface active phosphine, trisulfonated tris-m-(3henylpropyl)phenylphosphine, was synthesized and fully characterized. The results of biphasic olefin hydroformylation were consistent with aggregation of the ligand. The two phase 1-octene hydroformylation results showed that with only 3 methylene groups, there is no difference between the para and meta position of C3 group. A new chelating diphosphine, tetrasulfonated 2,2'-bis{di[p-(3 phenylpropyl)phenyl]phosphinomethyl}-1,1'-biphenyl,was prepared and fully characterized. Its application in two-phase hydroformylation of olefin showed enhanced activity and selectivity compared to the non-chelated phosphine analog. Finally, homogeneous asymmetric hydrogenation was carried out in the presence of a chiral surfactant in an attempt to affect asymmetric induction. The catalytic results showed that at a surfactant/Rh ratio of 25, the asymmetric hydrogenation of AACA-Me (a-Acetamidocinnamic Acid Methyl Ester) in methanol has no effect on asymmetric induction with the introduction of this chiral surfactant. / Master of Science

Transformer des produits naturels, les fonctionnaliser par hémi-synthèse ou par voie catalytique est un outil intéressant pour élargir le spectre des structures accessibles et de développer ainsi de nouvelles molécules à potentialité biologique. Nous nous sommes intéressés à la valorisation de sesquiterpènes isolés de l’huile essentielle du Cédres de l’Atlas qui représentent une famille de molécules naturelles abondantes et de faible coût. La première partie de ce travail porte sur des réactions d’hémisynthèse des himachalènes et des α-atlantones par des voies classiques d’époxydation, de dihalogéno cyclopropanation, de Grignard et de Wittig,dans le but d’accroître l’activité biologique reconnue de la molécule naturelle ou de découvrir de nouvelles activités. Les dérivés oléfiniques synthétisés ont été ensuite impliqués dans la réaction d’hydroformylation catalysée par des complexes au rhodium. Cette seconde partie décrit dans un premier temps la synthèse des ligands phospholes et biphospholes chiraux impliqués dans cette réaction. La performance des ligands a été évaluée dans la réaction d’hydroformylation de substrats modèles tels que le styrène, l’octène et l’α-méthylstyrèneet celle des ligands biphosphosles chiraux dans la version asymétrique de la réaction avecle styrène. Ensuite,la réaction a été étudiée sur les composés oléfiniques dérivés des α-atlantones. Les systèmes catalytiques [Rh(acac)(CO)2]/phospholes se montrent actifs e donnent de bonnes chimio- et régiosélectivité en faveur de l’aldéhyde linéaire. Nous avons également réalisé des réactions tandem d’hydroformylation/Wittig/hydroformylation pour obtenir des aldéhydes à long chaines aliphatiques ainsi que les réactions hydroformylation/acétalisation des alcools homo- et allyliques dérivé des α- atlantones afin d’accéder aux motifs lactones après oxydation des hemiacétals correspondants. La dernière partie est consacrée à la synthèse des nouveaux ligands pyrrol-phosphine (phosphole) (P-N) et leur évaluation dans la réaction d’arylation directe intramoléculaire catalysée des complexes du palladium sous micro-ondes. Cette réaction permet d’accéder à des lactones présentant un motif «dibenzo-pyranone».Les complexes associés avec les ligands pyrrol-phosphine montrent de bons résultats en termes de conversion et sélectivité. Un effet électronique remarquable des substituants des esters biaryles sur la chimiosélectivité de la réaction a été observé. / The functionnalisation of natural products by hemisynthesis or catalytic reactions is a useful tool to accessand develop newinteresting molecules with biological properties.We have been interested in chemical transformation of the sesquiterpenes isolated from the essential oil of Atlas Cedar, which represent a family of abundant and inexpensive natural molecules The first part of this work concerns the hemisynthesis reactions on the himachalènes and α-atlantones by classical epoxidation, dihalogénocyclopropanation, Grignard and Wittig reactions with the aim to increase the known biological activity or to investigate novel properties. Olefinic derivatives obtained were then involved in the hydroformylation reaction catalyzed by rhodium complexes. This second part describes first the synthesis of phospholeligands and chiral biphospholes involved in this reaction.The performance of these ligands has been evaluated in the hydroformylation reaction of model substrates like styrene, octene and α-methylstyrene as well as that of the chiral biphosphosles ligands in the asymmetric hydroformylation of styrene. Then the reaction has been studied with the olefin derived from α-atlantones using [Rh(acac)(CO)2]/L (L= phosphine or phosphole) catalytic systems. These systemsshow active and give good chemo- and regioselectivity in favour of the linear aldehyde. We have also carried out the tandem reactions such as hydroformylation/Wittig/hydroformylation to obtain aldehydes with long-chain aliphatic and hydroformylation/acetalization reactions of homo- and allylic alcohols derived from α-atlantones to obtain new five-and six-membered lactones after oxidation of the corresponding hemiacetals. The last part describes the synthesis of new ligands (P-N) pyrrol-phosphine (phosphole) and their evaluation in the direct intramolecular arylation reaction catalyzed by palladium complexes under microwaves.This reaction provides access to lactones with a «dibenzo-pyranone» backbone. The complexes containing pyrrol-phosphine ligands give interesting results in terms of conversion and selectivity from various biaryl esters.

Aqueous-biphasic organometallic catalysis is, as illustrated by the industrial hydroformylation of propene and butene, one of the most promising ways to overcome the intrinsic problem of catalyst separation in organometallic catalysis. However, for poorly water-soluble substrates, mass transfer limitations bring the reaction rate below any that could be economically viable, greatly limiting the scope of this elegant technology. We have studied three different strategies to overcome this limitation. We developed additives that speed up the reaction whilst retaining fast phase separation and good metal retention. Evidence suggests that those additives affect the reaction by forming emulsions with poor stability under the reaction conditions These emulsions increase the interfacial surface area but break after settling for a short time. We also developed ligands that allow the catalyst to be reversibly transported between an aqueous and an organic phase upon addition and removal of carbon dioxide. This allows the reaction to be carried out under homogeneous conditions, only limited by intrinsic kinetics, and the catalyst to be separated by aqueous extraction triggered by carbon dioxide. The catalyst can be returned to a fresh organic phase by flushing out the carbon dioxide. By applying this methodology for the hydroformylation of medium chain length alkenes, very high reaction rates were obtained and the catalyst could be recycle three times with excellent retention of activity and low metal leaching. This methodology could also be reversed with the reaction being carried out in an aqueous phase in the presence of carbon dioxide and extracting the catalyst into an organic solvent using nitrogen flushing. Finally, we briefly investigated the use of an oscillatory baffled reactor as a mean for mass transfer improvement for aqueous-biphasic hydroformylation. This new type reactor did not improve the performance of the system under the investigated conditions, but may require less energy input for equivalent agitation and mixing.

Ce travail de thèse a consisté en la synthèse et en la valorisation d’une nouvelle famille de cyclodextrines amphiphiles en catalyse aqueuse : les OléoSodioSuccinyl-Cyclodextrines (OSS-CDs). Ces OSS-CDs ont été obtenues en trois étapes principales. La première étape a consisté en la maléinisation thermique ou rhodiocatalysée de l’acide oléique ou de son ester méthylique. Les anhydrides succiniques substitués obtenus peuvent ensuite optionnellement subir une réaction d’hydrogénation de leur double liaison carbone-carbone par catalyse au rhodium sur charbon. Mis en réaction avec diverses cyclodextrines natives ou modifiées, ces anhydrides ont conduit à des esters de cyclodextrines présentant des fonctions acides carboxyliques. Les OSS-CDs, obtenues par neutralisation à la soude de ces fonctions, possèdent une solubilité aqueuse élevée (50-500 g.L-1 à 20°C), sont tensioactives (concentration d’agrégation critique : 4-360 g.L-1 à 20°C) et forment des agrégats en phase aqueuse. Les chaines grasses de ces OSS-CDs possèdent une forte tendance à s’inclure dans la cavité de la cyclodextrine sur laquelle elles sont greffées. Les OSS-CDs ont montré une très bonne capacité à promouvoir le transfert de matière en hydroformylation biphasique aqueuse et rhodiocatalysée d’alpha-oléfines grasses, avec des vitesses de réaction plus importantes obtenues lors de l’utilisation d’OSS-CDs issues de l’oléate de méthyle. Certaines OSS-CDs issues de l’acide oléique se sont avérées quant à elles de très bons stabilisants de nanoparticules de ruthénium. Les suspensions colloïdales auxquelles elles ont conduit présentent une forte stabilité, sont actives dans l’hydrogénation de nombreux substrats et peuvent être recyclées sans perte d’activité. / This thesis work consisted of the synthesis and valorisation of a new family of amphiphilic cyclodextrins in aqueous catalysis: OleoSodioSuccinyl-Cyclodextrins (OSS-CDs). These OSS-CDs were obtained in three main steps. The first step consisted of the thermal or rhodiocatalysed maleinisation of oleic acid or its methyl ester. The carbon-carbon double bond of the obtained substituted succinic anhydrides can then possibly be hydrogenated by rhodium on carbon catalysis. By reacting with native or modified cyclodextrins, these anhydrides led to cyclodextrin esters having carboxylic groups. The OSS-CDs, obtained by neutralisation with sodium hydroxide of these functions, have high aqueous solubilities ( 50-500 g.L-1 at 20° C), are surfactant (aggregation concentration: 4-360 g.L-1 at 20°C) and form aggregates in water. The fatty chains of these OSS-CDs have a strong tendency to include in the cavity of the cyclodextrin on which they are grafted. The OSS-CDs showed a very good mass transfer capacity in aqueous biphasic rhodiocatalysed hydroformylation of alpha-olefins, with higher reaction rates when using the OSS-CDs obtained from methyl oleate. Some OSS-CDs coming from oleic acid have been found to be very good stabilizers for ruthenium nanoparticles. The colloidal suspensions obtained with them were very stable, active in the hydrogenation of many substrates and can be recycled without loss of activity.

Ces travaux de thèse ont permis, au cours de deux projets, de s’attacher à la synthèse de structures complexes au moyen de réaction en cascade et de catalyse au rhodium.Dans une première partie, une méthodologie robuste pour la synthèse de 2,4,6-cycloheptatriénones entièrement substituées et non-symétriques par réaction de cycloaddition carbonylative [2+2+2+1] catalysée par des complexes de rhodium a été développée. Des mécanismes expliquant la formation des différents composés ont été proposés. Dans une seconde partie, l’application de l’hydroformylation désymétrisante catalysée au rhodium à la synthèse totale d’alcaloïdes indoliques de la famille Aspidosperma a été étudiée. Un intermédiaire clé de la synthèse de composés de type eburnane a ainsi été obtenu et sa transformation par différente stratégies été explorée. La synthèse totale de composés de type aspidosperma a été étudié, et les voies de synthèse explorées pourront être appliquées à des aldéhydes issus d’hydroformylation désymétrisante. / Through the course of two projects, this thesis work was concerned with the synthesis of complex scaffolds by means of cascade reactions and rhodium catalysis.In a first part, a new methodology was developed for the synthesis of non-symmetrical and fully substituted 2,4,6-cycloheptatrienones by rhodium-catalysed [2+2+2+1] carbonylative cycloaddition. Mechanisms for the formations of the observed compounds were proposed.In a second part, the application of rhodium-catalysed desymmetrising hydroformylation to the total synthesis of Aspidosperma indole alkaloids was studied. A key intermediate in the synthesis of eburnan-type alkaloids was thus obtained, and its transformation into th desired compounds using various strategies was explored. The total synthesis of aspidosperma-type alkaloids was studied, and the explored syntheses will be applied to aldehydes obtained by desymmetrising hydroformylation.

Ce mémoire de thèse est consacré au développement de nouveaux systèmes catalytiques dérivés de métallocyclodextrines. Les travaux qui y sont décrits ont trait à la mise au point de méthodes de fonctionnalisation régiosélective de la face primaire des cyclodextrines donnant accès à des ligands hétérodentés de type P,P’ à chiralité inhérente. Ces derniers forment quantitativement des complexes chélate de géométrie cis, dont les versions rhodiées ont été testées en hydrogénation eten hydroformylation asymétriques d’oléfines prochirales. L’étude des propriétés complexantes et catalytiques de deux phosphines confinantes dérivées d’α- et de β-cyclodextrine a également étér éalisée. L’ancrage rigide de l’atome de phosphore (III) au sein de la matrice cyclodextrine permet de confiner le centre métallique au coeur du macrocycle, ce qui se traduit par la formation exclusive de complexes mono-ligandés en phosphore. Les complexes monophosphine de rhodium (I) catalysent l’hydroformylation asymétrique du styrène avec une très forte sélectivité en produit branché et une énantiosélectivité très élevée. Le pontage de diaminocyclodextrines par l'acénaphtènequinone permet d’obtenir des ligands potentiellement confinants dans lesquels l’anse azotée de type N-(2-N’-alkylaminoacenaphthenyl)alkylimine est dissymétrique. L’oxydation du pont par voie chimique ou électrochimique conduit à une anse imidazole 1,2-disubstitué très courte qui provoque une forte déformation du squelette cyclodextrine. / This manuscript is concerned with the design of novel catalytic systems derived from metallocyclodextrins. The first part describes new ways of functionalising the cyclodextrin primary face regioselectively for accessing inherently chiral P,P’ chelators. These heterodentate ligands gavequantitatively cis-chelate complexes with various d8 cations. Their rhodium(I) complexes were assessed in the asymmetric hydrogenation and hydroformylation of prochiral olefins. Thecoordination and catalytic properties of two phosphines derived from a- and b-cyclodextrin are also reported. With their phosphorus lone pair pointing toward the CD core, these confining ligands force the coordinated metal centre to stay within the CD hollow and promote the formation of singly phosphorus-ligated complexes. Rhodium (I) monophosphine complexes of this type catalyse the asymmetric hydroformylation of styrene with both very high isoselectivity and enantioselectivity. Capping of diaminocyclodextrins with acenaphthenequinone resulted in the formation of a nonsymmetricN-(2-N’-alkylaminoacenaphthenyl)alkylimine handle with two intra-annular nitrogen atoms. A strong deformation of the cyclodextrin scaffold was shown to take place upon chemical or electrochemical oxidation of the bridging unit into the very short 1,2-disubstituted imidazole moiety.

Une démarche de type génie de la réaction chimique est appliquée à l'hydroformylation modèle d'oct-1-ène par des complexes lipophobes du rhodium préparés à partir de Rh(CO)2(acac) en phase liquide ionique ([Bmim][PF6]) ou en phase liquide ionique supportée sur silice. La réaction étant contrôlée par la concentration des réactifs dans la phase liquide ionique catalytique, une première étape a consisté à mesurer ces concentrations tant pour les deux gaz (H2 et CO) que pour l'oct-1-ène à différentes températures et pressions. Diverses méthodes de mesures sont utilisées pour la solubilité de l'oléfine : thermogravimétrie et chromatographie gazeuse après extraction multiple d’espace de tête, en présence de solvant (décane) et du produit de la réaction (nonanal). Le transfert gaz-liquide, qui peut conditionner la vitesse de réaction dans ces milieux visqueux, est également mesuré par une technique dynamique de variation de pression, en liquide ionique pur et en mélange biphasique liquide ionique-phase organique, dans un réacteur autoclave à autoaspiration de gaz par arbre creux. Une corrélation générale est proposée montrant une forte influence de la vitesse d'agitation.Une étude cinétique est réalisée en conditions de transferts non limitants en gaz-liquide organique-liquide ionique avec la TPPTS comme ligand. Les comportements habituels de l’hydroformylation  en  phase organique ou en phase aqueuse sont retrouvés : ordre voisin de 1 pour H2, inhibition par CO à forte concentration, énergie d'activation élevée. Si le turnover est convenable (70 h-1), le rapport n/iso est par contre très bas ce qui n'est pas en faveur de ce système catalytique. Quelques résultats permettent aussi une première analyse de la catalyse biphasique avec le ligand sulfoxantphos et de la catalyse en phase liquide ionique supportée sur silice avec la TPPTS. / A chemical reaction engineering approach is applied to the hydroformylation of 1-octene using lipophobic complexes of rhodium prepared from Rh(CO)2(acac) in ionic liquid phase ([Bmim] [PF6]) or in the ionic liquid phase supported on silica. As the reaction is controlled by the concentration of the reagents in the catalytic ionic liquid phase, the concentrations of both gases (H2 and CO) and also of 1-octene are measured at various temperatures and pressures as an initial step. Different methods are used for the measurement of the olefin solubility inside the ionic liquid: thermogravimetry and multiple headspace chromatography, in the presence of solvent (decane) and reaction product (nonanal). The gas-liquid mass transfer, which can be a rate controlling step in these viscous media, is also measured by a dynamic technique of pressure variation, both in case of pure ionic liquid and biphasic mixture of ionic liquid and organic phase, in an autoclave reactor with self induced stirrer. A general correlation is proposed showing the strong influence of the agitation speed. A kinetic study is realized in no gas–liquid nor organic–ionic liquid mass transfer limiting conditions (chemical regime) with TPPTS as ligand. The usual hydroformylation behaviour is observed, as already found in organic phase or in aqueous phase: order close to 1 for H2, inhibition by CO at large concentration, and high activation energy. If the turnover frequency is suitable (70 h-1), the n/iso ratio is very low which is not favourable to this catalytic system. Some experimental results also allow a first analysis of biphasic catalysis with sulfoxantphos ligand and of ionic liquid phase supported catalysis with TPPTS ligand.

The integration of organic solvent nanofiltration in processes of fine chemistry involving homogeneous metal catalysts has a great potentiel because this eco-friendly process, efficient at molecular scale, does not desactivate the catalyst contrary to conventionnal distillation. The aim of this study is to integrate organic solvent nanofiltration in the process of 10-undecenitrile hydroformylation in toluene. A one-step nanofiltration does not permit to fulfill the goals of the separation, which are to extract the product and to recycle the catalytic system (Rh, biphephos). Simulations of membrane cascades based on experimental data of flux and retention according to the concentration (acquired in the first part of the thesis) highlighted that a four stages cascades with recycling is realistic and competitive for an industrial plant. / L'intégration de la nanofiltration organique dans les procédés de chimie fine impliquant des catalyseurs organométalliques solubles a un fort potentiel car ce procédé éco-efficace de séparation à l'échelle moléculaire ne désactive pas les catalyseurs contrairement à la distillation classiquement utilisée. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'intégrer la nanofiltration organique dans le procédé d'hydroformylation du 10-undecenitrile dans le toluène. Un procédé en une étape de nanofiltration ne permet pas de remplir les objectifs de séparation qui sont l'extraction du produit et le recyclage du système catalytique (Rh, biphephos). Des simulations de cascades de membranes basées sur les données expérimentales de flux et de rétentions variables en fonction de la concentration, acquises en première partie de thèse, ont permis d'identifier un design de cascade à 4 étages avec recyclages réaliste et compétitif pour une conception industrielle.