ABSTRACT Introduction Under-five mortality is still a major cause of concern in Sub Saharan Africa and among the highest in the world. This is also exacerbated by the high prevalence and episodes of malaria in this age group, which accounts for 90% of all under-five deaths estimated in the region annually. The effect of detecting clustering of all cause and cause specific mortality and underlying factors is crucial for timely public health interventions. This is especially important for health authorities in Tanzania where under-five malaria attributable deaths accounts for 45% of the annual estimated mortality of 100, 000. Study objectives To estimate under-five mortality and analyze clustering of all cause and malaria specific mortality among under five children in Ifakara Demographic Surveillance System from 2002-2005. Methods Data from the Ifakara Health Research and Development Centre (IHRDC) were obtained for all under-five children who lived in 25 villages in the DSS from 2002 – 2005. Analyses for all cause and malaria cause specific under-five mortality were done using data collected from the DSS and verbal autopsy systems. Annual all cause and malaria specific mortality rates were calculated by dividing number of deaths and person years observed. Clustering of deaths for all cause and cause specific (malaria) in the 25 villages were analyzed using SaTScanTM version 7.0 software. A Poisson model was used to detect clusters with high rates in space and in space-time. Household assets and characteristics were used to construct a wealth index using Principal component analysis (PCA) in StataTM version9. The index was used to group households into five equal groups from poorest to least poor. Results Overall infants’ mortality was sixty-three times higher (326 per 1,000 person years) compared to children (5.1 per 1,000 person years) and with mortality rates between girls and boys were very similar, (15.8 and 14.8 per 1,000 person years). Year of death and place of death (village) were found to be significantly associated with malaria deaths. However, socio-economic status of parents in households where deaths occurred was not associated to malaria deaths in the DSS. A number of statistically significant clusters of all cause and cause specific malaria deaths were identified in several locations in the DSS. The located clusters imply that villages within the clusters have an elevated risk of under-five deaths. A space-time cluster of four villages with radius of 15.91 km was discovered with the highest risk (RR 2.71; P-value 0.020) of malaria deaths in 2004. Conclusion These findings demonstrate that there is non-random clustering of both all cause and malaria cause specific mortality in the study area. The high infant mortality results also suggest a careful examination of the data collection procedures in the DSS and require further studies to understand this pattern of mortality among the under-five population. Appropriate health interventions aimed at reducing burden of malaria should be strengthened in this part of rural Tanzania. There is need to replicate this study to other areas in the country.

MSc (Med), Population-Based Field Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Faculty of health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand / Introduction: The achievements of the United Nations’ millennium development goals (MDGs) are not possible in isolation. Adult health and mortality with the exception of maternal health is one of the health issues that were openly missing among the list of MDGs. But eradicating extreme poverty and hunger would not be possible if the economically active population is not supported to be healthy and to live longer. Little has been done on adult health, especially to reduce mortality as compared to child health. Adult mortality is expected to equal or exceed child mortality in sub-Saharan Africa if nothing is done. There are varying factors associated with specific-causes of adult deaths within and among different settings. Obtaining more and better data on adult deaths and understanding issues relating to adult deaths in Africa are crucial for long life and development. Objectives: The study seeks to (i) describe causes of adult mortality, (ii) estimate adult cause-specific mortality rates and trends and (iii) identify risk factors of cause-specific mortality in the Ifakara Health and Demographic Surveillance System (IHDSS) population from 2003 – 2007 among adults aged 15 – 59 years. Methodology: The data for the study was extracted from the database of the Ifakara Health and Demographic Surveillance System (IHDSS) in Tanzania from 2003-2007. It was an open cohort study. The cohort was selected based on age (15-59years) and active residency from 1st January 2003 to 31st December 2007. Survival estimates were computed using Kaplan-Meier survival technique and adult mortality rates were estimated expressed per 1000 person years observed (PYO). Verbal autopsy method was used to ascertain causes of deaths. Cox proportional hazards method was used to identify socio-demographic factors associated with specific-causes of adult deaths. v Findings: A total 65,548 adults were identified and followed up, yielding a total of 184,000 person years. A total of 1,352 deaths occurred during the follow-up. The crude adult mortality rate (AMR) estimated over the period was 7.3/1000PYO. There was an insignificant steady increase in annual AMR over the period. The AMR in 2007 increased by 11% over year 2003. Most people died from HIV/AIDS (20.4%) followed by Malaria (13.2%). The AMR for the period was 2.49 per 1000PYO for communicable disease (CD) causes, 1.21 per 1000PYO for non communicable disease (NCD) causes and 0.53 per 1000PYO for causes related to accidents/injuries. Over the study period, deaths resulting from NCDs increased significantly by 50%. The proportion of deaths due to NCDs in 2003 was 16% increasing to 24% in year 2007. Adult deaths from Accidents/Injuries were significantly higher among men (hazard ratio (HR) = 2.2) after adjusting for socioeconomic status (SES), level of education and household size. For communicable and NCDs, most people died at home while for Accidents/Injuries most people died elsewhere (neither home nor health facility). The risk factors that were found to be associated with adult deaths due to NCDs were age and level of education. An improvement in level of education saw a reduction in the risk of dying from NCDs ((HR(Primary)=0.67, 95%CI:0.49, 0.92) and (HR(beyond Primary)=0.11, 95%CI:0.02, 0.40) after adjusting for age and sex. Age, SES and “entry type” were the factors found to be associated with dying from communicable diseases among the adults. In-migrants were 1.7 times more likely to die from communicable disease causes than residents having adjusted for age, household size, educational level, employment status of the head of household and SES. Conclusion: HIV/AIDS is the leading cause of adult deaths in IHDSS area followed by malaria. Most adult deaths occurred outside health facility in rural areas. This could probably be explained by the health seeking behavior and or health care accessibility in vi the rural area of sub-Saharan Africa. NCDs are increasing as a result of demographic and epidemiological transitions taking place in most African countries including Tanzania. Without preventions the rural community in Tanzania will soon face increased triple disease burden; (CD), NCD and Accident/Injuries. Policies on accident/injury preventions in developing countries will be effective if based on local evidence and research.

The objective of this study was to examine three well designs: drilled wells (20-30 m deep), closed dug wells (>5 m deep), and hand-dug open wells (<5 m deep), to determine the water quality for improving access to safe and clean water in rural communities. Heterotrophic plate count (HPC), total coliforms (TC), Escherichia coli (E. coli) and turbidity, were used to assess the water quality of 97 wells. Additionally, the study looked at the microflora diversity of the water, focusing on potential pathogens using outgrowth, PCR, and genome sequencing for 10 wells. Concentrations of TC for the open dug wells (4 x 10(4) CFU/100 mL) were higher than the drilled (2 x 10(3) CFU/100 mL) and closed dug wells (3 x 10(3) CFU/100 mL). E. coli concentration for drilled and closed dug wells was <22 MPN (most probable number)/100 mL, but higher for open wells (>154 MPN/100 mL). The drilled well turbidity (11 NTU) was within the standard deviation of the closed well (28 NTU) compared to open dug wells (49 NTU). Drilled and closed wells had similar microbial diversity. There were no significant differences between drilled and closed dug wells. The covering and lining of hand-dug wells should be considered as an alternative to improve access to safe and clean water in rural communities.