Sphingolipids are found in essentially all animals, plants and fungi, and some prokaryotic organisms and viruses. Sphingolipids function as structural components of membranes, lipoproteins, and as cell signaling modulators and mediators. To complicate matters further, sphingolipids often vary in type in different regions of tissues, and even in single cells, the subcellular localization of sphingolipids and their metabolic enzymes, transport proteins and targets may influence their functions. It is important to study sphingolipids spatial distribution within living organisms to understand how sphingolipids are involved in complex biochemical processes. As part of this thesis, procedures were optimized for the use of matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) tissue mass spectrometry (TIMS) to visualize the location of several types of lipids including sulfatides (ST), gangliosides and phosphoglycerolipids in brains from a mouse model for Tay-Sachs/Sandhoff disease. MALDI-TIMS was next applied to human ovarian carcinoma tissue to detect sulfatide location and established that ST are associated specifically with the regions of the ovarian tissue that bear the carcinoma. Electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS-MS) was also used to confirm that ST and galactosylceramide (GalCer) are elevated in ovarian cancer. Gene expression data using tumor cells collected using laser capture microdissection revealed greater expression of mRNAs for GalCer synthase, GalCer sulfotransferase (Gal3ST1) and other enzymes of ST biosynthesis in epithelial ovarian carcinoma cells. This is a unique combination of two complementary, profiling technologies--mass spectrometry (metabolomic approach) with analysis of gene expression to study complex cancer pathology. The next study focused on the subcellular location of sphingolipids. In comparison with wild type Hek293 cells, a Hek293 cell line stably overexpressing serine palmitoyltransferase (SPT1/2 cells) was found to have elevated amounts of all subspecies of ceramide (Cer), but produces disproportionately higher amounts of C18-Cer and GalCer. Since Cer is known to inhibit protein ER/Golgi trafficking, these studies found that the higher production of Cer caused impairment of ER/Golgi trafficking of Ceramide synthase 1 (CerS1), thus increased C18-Cer. In addition, since GalCer is only synthesized in the lumen of the ER, this impairement of ER/Golgi trafficking also gave GalCer synthase access to its substrate and increased GalCer biosynthesis. These studies illustrate the complexity of sphingolipid biology and the usefulness of multiple tools to understand sphingolipid complex biological processes.

Listeria monocytogenes est une bactérie à Gram positif impliquée dans des infections graves d’origine alimentaire. La plupart des cas de listériose humaine sont causés par la consommation d'aliments réfrigérés prêts à consommer. La capacité de ces bactéries à survivre et à se multiplier dans une large gamme de conditions difficiles fait de ce pathogène une des préoccupations majeures dans les industries agro-alimentaires. Ces propriétés de L. monocytogenes sont renforcées par son aptitude à former des biofilms. Le but de ce projet était d'explorer l'adaptation de ce pathogène à la déshumidification et aux basses températures par deux approches de protéomique. La première approche, basée sur la technique d’imagerie par spectrométrie de masse (IMS) MALDI-TOF, permet de réaliser la cartographie de molécules à partir d'échantillons biologiques. Ce travail a consisté à développer cette approche, en considérant un biofilm bactérien comme un tissu, afin d’accéder à des informations sur la distribution de protéines dans des biofilms de L. monocytogenes soumis à un stress de déshumidification. En outre, une approche LC-MS/MS a été utilisée pour relier les données spectrales d’intérêt obtenues par l'IMS et l'identification des protéines. L’IMS a permis d'examiner la distribution de 47 protéines de bas poids moléculaire dans les biofilms. Cinq protéines ont été identifiées par LC-MS/MS grâce aux données m/z de l’IMS, y compris deux protéines de choc thermique. Les résultats démontrent que l'IMS peut être utilisée pour disséquer le protéome spatial d'un biofilm bactérien. La deuxième approche protéomique a consisté en une comparaison semi-quantitative relative et sans marquage (shotgun proteomic) des protéines exprimées dans différentes conditions de culture. Par cette méthode, nous avons exploré l’expression protéique en fonction du mode de croissance (biofilm vs planctonique) et de la température (10°C, 25°C et 37°C). Parmi les 920 et 931 protéines uniques identifiées, provenant respectivement de cellules sessiles et planctoniques, beaucoup sont liées à des fonctions cellulaires de base, mais certaines sont liées à la thermorégulation. Des changements ont été observés dans le protéome de L. monocytogenes en biofilm par rapport aux cellules planctoniques, ce qui indique des modes de régulation différents selon le mode de croissance. Ces comparaisons de l'expression des protéines dans plusieurs conditions (modes de croissance, températures) enrichiront les bases de données et aideront à modéliser les circuits de régulation qui conduisent à l'adaptation de L. monocytogenes aux environnements. / Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive bacterium implicated in serious food-borne infections. Most cases of human listeriosis are caused by the consumption of refrigerated ready-to-eat foods. The ability of these bacteria to survive and multiply in a wide range of harsh conditions make this pathogen a major concern in agro-food industries. These properties of L. monocytogenes are enhanced by its ability to form biofilms. The aim of this project was to explore the adaptation of this pathogen to dehumidification and low temperatures by two proteomic approaches. The first approach, based on the MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry imaging (IMS), allows the mapping of molecules from biological samples. This work aimed to develop this approach, considering a bacterial biofilm as a tissue, in order to access information on the distribution of proteins in L. monocytogenes biofilms subjected to a dehumidification stress. In addition, an LC-MS/MS approach was used to link spectral data of interest obtained by IMS and protein identification. The IMS allowed to examine the distribution of 47 low molecular weight proteins within the biofilms. Five identified proteins were assigned by LC-MS/MS using IMS m/z data, including two cold-shock proteins. The results demonstrate that imaging can be used to dissect the spatial proteome of a bacterial biofilm. The second proteomic approach consisted on a relative semi-quantitative label-free (shotgun proteomic) comparison of proteins expressed under different culture conditions. With the method, we explored protein expression according to the mode of growth (biofilm vs planktonic) and temperature (10°C, 25°C and 37°C). Throughout the 920 and 931 unique proteins identified, from sessile and planktonic cells, respectively, many are connected to basic cell functions, but some are linked with thermoregulation. A shift was observed in the proteome of L. monocytogenes biofilms compared to planktonic cells indicating different patterns of regulation according to the mode of growth. These comparisons of protein expression throughout several conditions (mode of growth and temperatures) will enrich databases and help to model regulatory circuitry that drives adaptation of L. monocytogenes to environments.

The incidence of breast cancer became the most common female cancer, and the fourth cause of female cancer death. In this study, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF/MS) have been combined with multivariate statistics to investigate breast cancer tissues and cell lines. Core needle biopsy and fine needle aspiration (FNA) are techniques largely applied in the diagnosis of breast cancer. In this study, we have established an efficient protocol for detecting breast tissue and FNA samples with MALDI-TOF/MS. With the help of statistical analysis software, we can find the lipid-derived ion signals which can be use to distinguish breast cancer tumor tissues from non-tumor parts. This strategy can differentiate normal and tumor tissue, which is potential to apply in clinical diagnoses. The analysis of breast cancer tissue is challenging as the complexity of the tissue sample. Direct tissue analyses by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization imaging mass spectrometry (MALDI-IMS) allows us to investigate the molecular structure and their distribution while maintaining the integrity of the tissue and avoiding the loss of signals from extraction steps. Combined MALDI-IMS with statistic software, tissues can be analyzed and classified based on their molecular content which is helpful to distinguish tumor regions from non-tumor regions of breast cancer tissue. Our result shows the differences in the distribution and content of lipids between tumor and non-tumor tissue which can be supplements of current pathological analysis in tumor margins. In this study, MALDI-TOF/MS combined with multivariate statistics were used to rapidly differentiate breast cancer cell lines with different estrogen receptor (ER) and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) status. The protocol for efficiently detecting peptides and proteins in breast cancer cells with MALDI-TOF/MS was established, two multivariate statistics including principle component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering analysis were used to process the obtaining MALDI mass spectra of six different breast cancer cell lines and one normal breast cell lines. Based on the difference of the peptide and protein profiles, breast cancer cell lines with same ER and HER-2 status were grouped in nearby region on the PCA score plot. The results of hierarchical cluster analysis also revealed high conformity between breast cancer cell protein profiles and respective hormone receptor types.

Imaging mass spectrometry (MS) analysis allows scientists the ability to obtain spatial and chemical information of analytes on a wide variety of surfaces. The ability to image biological analytes is an important tool in many areas of life science research, including: the ability to map pharmaceutical drugs in targeted tissue, to spatially determine the expression profile of specific proteins in healthy vs. diseased tissue states, and to rapidly interrogate biomolecular microarrays. However, there are several avenues for improving the imaging MS experiment for biological samples. Three significant directions this work addresses include: (1) reducing chemical noise and increasing analyte identification by developing sample preparation methodologies, (2) improving the analytical figures of merit (i.e., spatial resolution, analysis time) by implementing a spatially dynamic optical system, and (3) increasing both mass spectral resolution and ion detection sensitivity by modifying a commercial time-of-flight (TOF) MS. Firstly, sample methodology schemes presented in these studies consist of obtaining both ?top-down? and ?bottom-up? information. In that, both intact mass and peptide mass fingerprinting data can be obtained to increase protein identification. This sample methodology was optimized on protein microarrays in preparation for bio tissue analysis. Other work consists of optimizing novel sample preparation strategies for hydrated solid-supported lipid bilayer studies. Sample methods incorporating nanomaterials for laser desorption/ionization illustrate the ability to perform selective ionization of specific analytes. Specifically, our results suggest that silver nanoparticles facilitate the selective ionization of olefin containing species (e.g., steroids, vitamins). Secondly, an advanced optical design incorporating a spatially dynamic optical scheme allows for laser beam expansion, homogenization, collimation, shaping, and imaging. This spatially dynamic optical system allows user defined beam shapes, decreases analysis times associated with mechanical movement of the sample stage, and is capable of increasing the MS limits of detection by simultaneously irradiating multiple spots. Lastly, new data acquisition strategies (multiple anode detection schemes) were incorporated into a commercial time-of-flight mass spectrometer to increase both sensitivity and resolution in a matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometer. The utility of this technique can be applied to many different samples, where high mass spectral resolution allows for increased mass measurement accuracy.

Today we are collecting a large amount of tissue samples to store for future studies of different health conditions, in hopes that the focus in health care will shift from treatments to early detection and prevention, by the use of biomarkers. To make sure that the storing of tissue is done in a reliable way, where the molecular profile of the samples are preserved, we first need to characterise how these changes occur. In this thesis, data from mice brains were collected using MALDI imaging mass spectrometry (IMS) and an analysis pipeline for robust MALDI IMS data handling and evaluation was implemented. The finished pipeline contains two reduction algorithms, catching images with interesting intensity features, while taking the spatial information into account, along with a robust similarity measurement, for measuring the degree of co-localisation. It also includes a clustering algorithm built upon the similarity measurement and an amino acid mass comparer, iteratively generating combinations of amino acids for further mass comparisons with mass differences between cluster members. Availability: The source code is available at https://github.com/stephanieherman/thesis

Les lipides représentent une classe essentielle de biomolécules au fonctionnement normal des organismes vivants. Étant donné leur complexité et leur très grande diversité, les analyses du lipidome combinent généralement une méthode de séparation analytique et une détection par spectrométrie de masse. Bien que ces méthodes d’analyses présentent plusieurs avantages, elles requièrent généralement une homogénéisation de l’échantillon préalablement à l’analyse. La conséquence est la perte de l’information spatiale des analytes au travers de l’échantillon. L’imagerie par spectrométrie de masse (IMS) est une technologie de pointe permettant de cartographier au niveau moléculaire des sections tissulaires minces sans homogénéisation préalable de l’échantillon. Cette technique d’analyse permet de caractériser une vaste gamme d’analyte d’intérêt sans l’utilisation de marqueurs spécifiques. Ainsi, cette cartographie moléculaire peut être combinée à des méthodes de coloration tissulaires ou de microscopie optique afin de corréler précisément les résultats obtenus avec les histologies des sections. En revanche, la délocalisation potentielle des analytes d’intérêt au travers de la section entraîne de graves erreurs d’interprétation et prévient la corrélation exacte des résultats IMS avec les régions histologiques d’intérêt. Les travaux mis en évidence dans ce mémoire présentent le développement, la caractérisation et l’utilisation d’une nouvelle lame d’analyse pour l’IMS permettant de drastiquement réduire la délocalisation des triacylglycérols (TAG) présents dans le gras viscéral. Dans un premier temps, ces travaux montrent la délocalisation des TAG sur et hors-section tissulaire ainsi que leur induction sur la migration conjointe de plusieurs classes de phospholipides (PL) dans leurs déplacements. Par la suite, l’amplitude de la délocalisation des TAG fut étudiée sur 12 types de lames différentes, et la caractérisation de la topographie et de l’hydrophobicité de ces lames à permis de mieux comprendre la relation entre la surface et l’ampleur de la délocalisation des TAG. Pour finir, le potentiel antidélocalisation d’une nouvelle lame en aluminium oxydé fut étudié avec deux tissus comprenant une large proportion de gras viscéral soit un échantillon de muscle de boeuf présentant des stries de gras internes et un rein de souris bordé de gras. Cette nouvelle lame permet une forte ségrégation des TAG comparativement aux résultats obtenus sur les lames commerciales couramment utilisées et ainsi augmenter la fidélité des analyses IMS obtenues. Cette nouvelle méthode permettra entre autres l’analyse de plusieurs organes et tissus d’intérêt très gras autrement difficile à analyser tel que le rein, la médulla surrénale, certains muscles et cancer du sein. / Lipids represent an essential class of biomolecules for the normal functioning of living organisms. Because of their high complexity and diversity, lipid analysis generally requires the combination of an analytical separation method with mass spectrometry detection. Although these methods present many advantages, they also generally require sample homogenization prior to analysis. This implies the loss of analyte spatial localization information within the sample. Imaging mass spectrometry (IMS) is a frontier technology that allows to generate molecular cartography of thin tissue sections without prior homogenization of the sample. This technique allows to characterize a vast variety of analyte without the use of any specific markers. IMS molecular cartography can be combined to staining methods for optic microscopy to precisely correlate results with the underlaying histological features. On the other hand, potential delocalization of analytes throughout the section would prevent correlation of the IMS results with any histological landmarks and lead to severe misinterpretation by an unaware analyst. The work in this master’s thesis presents the development, characterization and use of a new slide for IMS analyses allowing a drastic decrease the delocalization of triglycerides (TAG) abundant in visceral fat. In the first part of this work, TAG delocalization on and off tissue section and its effect on phospholipids (PL) delocalization was characterized. Subsequently, the extend of TAG delocalization was evaluated on 12 different slides and both surface topography and hydrophobicity studies allowed to better understand the relationship between surface chemistry and TAG delocalization. Finally, the ability of an optimal aluminum oxide slide to decrease visceral fat delocalization was investigated using fat-marbled beef sections and kidneys surrounded by significant fat bundles. This new aluminum oxide slide presents a strong segregation for TAG in comparison to commercially available ITO-coated slides. Overall, this new aluminum oxide slide can considerably limit TAG delocalization and improve IMS fidelity and will enable the analyses of multiples organs and samples presenting large amounts of fat such as kidney, adrenal medulla, muscles, and breast cancer, otherwise very difficult to analyze using traditional slides.

Photofragment velocity-map imaging (VMI) has generally been employed to investigate the photodissociation dynamics of relatively small molecular systems (< 5 atoms). The work reported in this thesis focuses on the application of this technique for the investigation of the unimolecular photodissociation of larger chemical systems, which are of interest to a broad cross section of the chemical community. Typically, VMI studies involve state-selective detection of one particular fragmentation product, and so are often limited to the investigation of a single dissociation channel. By employing vacuum ultra-violet (VUV) photoionization, we are able to detect most, if not all of the fragments resulting from the dissociation of a neutral species, with ‘universal’ ionization being achieved in the ideal case when the fragment ionization energies are all lower than the VUV photon energy. This capability becomes particularly important when investigating larger systems, since these often display complex dynamics with multiple competing fragmentation pathways. Our approach allows us to investigate the different photofragmentation processes occurring for a particular system, to evaluate the relative importance of the active dissociation channels, and to gain insight into the energy partitioning amongst the fragments. A study of the UV photodissociation of two neutral alkyl iodide molecules demonstrates the first use in our laboratory of ‘universal’ ionization in combination with VMI. Studies into the photofragmentation processes resulting from 193 nm photoexcitation of neutral N,N-dimethylformamide, a small-molecule model for a peptide bond, and a number of neutral cyclic alkenes, which undergo the retro-Diels-Alder reaction, are also presented. The remaining studies presented in this thesis have investigated the photofragmentation processes of ionic species, generated by means of VUV photoionization. In the case of ion dissociation each fragmentation channel necessarily produces one charged species, which may be detected using the VMI technique. Therefore, such studies provide an insight into all of the active channels. An in-depth VMI study of the UV photodissociation of two ethyl halide cations is presented, which demonstrates the successful investigation of the multiple photofragmentation pathways of these ionic species. The remainder of the cation photodissociation studies are of relevance to a number of common processes known to occur in mass spectrometry, including the McLafferty rearrangement, the retro-Diels-Alder reaction, and ‘peptide’ bond fragmentation. By velocity-map imaging the products of these reactions, further information is obtained concerning these dissociation processes, which are no doubt of interest to the wider chemical community. This work forms part of the velocity-map imaging mass spectrometry (VMImMS) project. VMImMS involves imaging each of the fragmentation products that result from dissociation of a parent molecule of interest, with the aim of increasing the amount of information that can be obtained from a mass-spectrometry-type experiment. The work presented in this thesis demonstrates that VMImMS allows us to unravel details of the dissociation dynamics of both neutral and ionic species, and is potentially a powerful technique for investigating the fragmentation processes of increasingly complex systems.

La spectrométrie de masse mesure la masse des ions selon leur rapport masse sur charge. Cette technique est employée dans plusieurs domaines et peut analyser des mélanges complexes. L’imagerie par spectrométrie de masse (Imaging Mass Spectrometry en anglais, IMS), une branche de la spectrométrie de masse, permet l’analyse des ions sur une surface, tout en conservant l’organisation spatiale des ions détectés. Jusqu’à présent, les échantillons les plus étudiés en IMS sont des sections tissulaires végétales ou animales. Parmi les molécules couramment analysées par l’IMS, les lipides ont suscité beaucoup d'intérêt. Les lipides sont impliqués dans les maladies et le fonctionnement normal des cellules; ils forment la membrane cellulaire et ont plusieurs rôles, comme celui de réguler des événements cellulaires. Considérant l’implication des lipides dans la biologie et la capacité du MALDI IMS à les analyser, nous avons développé des stratégies analytiques pour la manipulation des échantillons et l’analyse de larges ensembles de données lipidiques. La dégradation des lipides est très importante dans l’industrie alimentaire. De la même façon, les lipides des sections tissulaires risquent de se dégrader. Leurs produits de dégradation peuvent donc introduire des artefacts dans l’analyse IMS ainsi que la perte d’espèces lipidiques pouvant nuire à la précision des mesures d’abondance. Puisque les lipides oxydés sont aussi des médiateurs importants dans le développement de plusieurs maladies, leur réelle préservation devient donc critique. Dans les études multi-institutionnelles où les échantillons sont souvent transportés d’un emplacement à l’autre, des protocoles adaptés et validés, et des mesures de dégradation sont nécessaires. Nos principaux résultats sont les suivants : un accroissement en fonction du temps des phospholipides oxydés et des lysophospholipides dans des conditions ambiantes, une diminution de la présence des lipides ayant des acides gras insaturés et un effet inhibitoire sur ses phénomènes de la conservation des sections au froid sous N2. A température et atmosphère ambiantes, les phospholipides sont oxydés sur une échelle de temps typique d’une préparation IMS normale (~30 minutes). Les phospholipides sont aussi décomposés en lysophospholipides sur une échelle de temps de plusieurs jours. La validation d’une méthode de manipulation d’échantillon est d’autant plus importante lorsqu’il s’agit d’analyser un plus grand nombre d’échantillons. L’athérosclérose est une maladie cardiovasculaire induite par l’accumulation de matériel cellulaire sur la paroi artérielle. Puisque l’athérosclérose est un phénomène en trois dimension (3D), l'IMS 3D en série devient donc utile, d'une part, car elle a la capacité à localiser les molécules sur la longueur totale d’une plaque athéromateuse et, d'autre part, car elle peut identifier des mécanismes moléculaires du développement ou de la rupture des plaques. l'IMS 3D en série fait face à certains défis spécifiques, dont beaucoup se rapportent simplement à la reconstruction en 3D et à l’interprétation de la reconstruction moléculaire en temps réel. En tenant compte de ces objectifs et en utilisant l’IMS des lipides pour l’étude des plaques d’athérosclérose d’une carotide humaine et d’un modèle murin d’athérosclérose, nous avons élaboré des méthodes «open-source» pour la reconstruction des données de l’IMS en 3D. Notre méthodologie fournit un moyen d’obtenir des visualisations de haute qualité et démontre une stratégie pour l’interprétation rapide des données de l’IMS 3D par la segmentation multivariée. L’analyse d’aortes d’un modèle murin a été le point de départ pour le développement des méthodes car ce sont des échantillons mieux contrôlés. En corrélant les données acquises en mode d’ionisation positive et négative, l’IMS en 3D a permis de démontrer une accumulation des phospholipides dans les sinus aortiques. De plus, l’IMS par AgLDI a mis en évidence une localisation différentielle des acides gras libres, du cholestérol, des esters du cholestérol et des triglycérides. La segmentation multivariée des signaux lipidiques suite à l’analyse par IMS d’une carotide humaine démontre une histologie moléculaire corrélée avec le degré de sténose de l’artère. Ces recherches aident à mieux comprendre la complexité biologique de l’athérosclérose et peuvent possiblement prédire le développement de certains cas cliniques. La métastase au foie du cancer colorectal (Colorectal cancer liver metastasis en anglais, CRCLM) est la maladie métastatique du cancer colorectal primaire, un des cancers le plus fréquent au monde. L’évaluation et le pronostic des tumeurs CRCLM sont effectués avec l’histopathologie avec une marge d’erreur. Nous avons utilisé l’IMS des lipides pour identifier les compartiments histologiques du CRCLM et extraire leurs signatures lipidiques. En exploitant ces signatures moléculaires, nous avons pu déterminer un score histopathologique quantitatif et objectif et qui corrèle avec le pronostic. De plus, par la dissection des signatures lipidiques, nous avons identifié des espèces lipidiques individuelles qui sont discriminants des différentes histologies du CRCLM et qui peuvent potentiellement être utilisées comme des biomarqueurs pour la détermination de la réponse à la thérapie. Plus spécifiquement, nous avons trouvé une série de plasmalogènes et sphingolipides qui permettent de distinguer deux différents types de nécrose (infarct-like necrosis et usual necrosis en anglais, ILN et UN, respectivement). L’ILN est associé avec la réponse aux traitements chimiothérapiques, alors que l’UN est associé au fonctionnement normal de la tumeur. / Mass spectrometry is the measurement of the mass over charge ratio of ions. It is broadly applicable and capable of analyzing complex mixtures. Imaging mass spectrometry (IMS) is a branch of mass spectrometry that analyses ions across a surface while conserving their spatial organization on said surface. At this juncture, the most studied IMS samples are thin tissue sections from plants and animals. Among the molecules routinely imaged by IMS, lipids have generated significant interest. Lipids are important in disease and normal cell function as they form cell membranes and act as signaling molecules for cellular events among many other roles. Considering the potential of lipids in biological and clinical applications and the capability of MALDI to ionize lipids, we developed analytical strategies for the handling of samples and analysis of large lipid MALDI IMS datasets. Lipid degradation is massively important in the food industry with oxidized products producing a bad smell and taste. Similarly, lipids in thin tissue sections cut from whole tissues are subject to degradation, and their degradation products can introduce IMS artifacts and the loss of normally occurring species to degradation can skew accuracy in IMS measures of abundance. Oxidized lipids are also known to be important mediators in the progression of several diseases and their accurate preservation is critical. As IMS studies become multi-institutional and collaborations lead to sample exchange, the need for validated protocols and measures of degradation are necessary. We observed the products of lipid degradation in tissue sections from multiple mouse organs and reported on the conditions promoting and inhibiting their presence as well as the timeline of degradation. Our key findings were the increase in oxidized phospholipids and lysophospholipids from degradation at ambient conditions, the decrease in the presence of lipids containing unsaturations on their fatty acyl chains, and the inhibition of degradation by matrix coating and cold storage of sections under N2 atmosphere. At ambient atmospheric and temperature, lipids degraded into oxidized phospholipids on the time-scale of a normal IMS experiment sample preparation (within 30 min). Lipids then degraded into lysophospholipids’ on a time scale on the order of several days. Validation of sample handling is especially important when a greater number of samples are to be analyzed either through a cohort of samples, or analysis of multiple sections from a single tissue as in serial 3D IMS. Atherosclerosis is disease caused by accumulation of cellular material at the arterial wall. The accumulation implanted in the cell wall grows and eventually occludes the blood vessel, or causes a stroke. Atherosclerosis is a 3D phenomenon and serial 3D IMS is useful for its ability to localize molecules throughout the length of a plaque and help to define the molecular mechanisms of plaque development and rupture. Serial 3D IMS has many challenges, many of which are simply a matter of producing 3D reconstructions and interpreting them in a timely fashion. In this aim and using analysis of lipids from atherosclerotic plaques from a human carotid and mouse aortic sinuses, we described 3D reconstruction methods using open-source software. Our methodology provides means to obtain high quality visualizations and demonstrates strategies for rapid interpretation of 3D IMS datasets through multivariate segmentation. Mouse aorta from model animals provided a springboard for developing the methods on lower risk samples with less variation with interesting molecular results. 3D MALDI IMS showed localized phospholipid accumulation in the mouse aortic sinuses with correlation between separate positive and negative ionization datasets. Silver-assisted LDI imaging presented differential localization of free fatty acids, cholesterol / cholesterol esters, and triglycerides. The human carotid’s 3D segmentation shows molecular histologies (spatial groupings of imaging pixels with similar spectral fingerprints) correlating to the degree of arterial stenosis. Our results outline the potential for 3D IMS in atherosclerotic research. Molecular histologies and their 3D spatial organization, obtained from the IMS techniques used herein, may predict high-risk features, and particularly identify areas of plaque that have higher-risk of rupture. These investigations would help further unravel the biological complexities of atherosclerosis, and predict clinical outcomes. Colorectal cancer liver metastasis (CRCLM) is the metastatic disease of primary colorectal cancer, one of the most common cancers worldwide. CRC is a cancer of the endothelial lining of the colon or rectum. CRC itself is often cured with surgery, while CRCLM is more deadly and treated with chemotherapy with more limited efficacy. Prognosticating and assessment of tumors is performed using classical histopathology with a margin of error. We have used lipid IMS to identify the histological compartments and extract their signatures. Using these IMS signatures we obtained a quantitative and objective histopathological score that correlates with prognosis. Additionally, by dissecting out the lipid signatures we have identified single lipid moieties that are unique to different histologies that could potentially be used as new biomarkers for assessing response to therapy. Particularly, we found a series of plasmalogen and sphingolipid species that differentiate infarct-like and usual necrosis, typical of chemotherapeutic response and normal tumor function, respectively.

Pseudoexfoliation (PEX) syndrome is an age-related condition characterized by the production and accumulation of extracellular fibrillary material in the anterior segment of the eye. PEX predisposes for several pathological conditions, such as glaucoma and complications during and after cataract surgery. The pathogenesis of PEX is not yet fully understood. It is multifactorial with genetics and ageing as contributing factors. We aimed to study the proteome in aqueous humor (AH) in PEX in order to increase the knowledge about its pathophysiology. Therefore, we developed sampling techniques and evaluated separation methods necessary for analyzing small sample volumes. Other objectives were to study the lens capsule in eyes with PEX regarding small molecules, and to investigate the association between PEX and cataract surgery in a population-based 30-year follow-up study. Samples of AH from eyes with PEX and control eyes were collected during cataract surgery. In pooled, and individual samples, various liquid based separation techniques and high resolution mass spectrometry were utilized. For quantitation, various methods for labeling, and label free techniques were applied. Lens capsules were collected from some of the patients, and analysed by imaging mass spectrometry. A cohort of 1,471 elderly individuals underwent a comprehensive ophthalmological examination at baseline. Medical information was obtained by questionnaires, and from medical records. Incident cases of cataract surgery were identified by review of medical records. In the initial study, several techniques were explored for protein detection, and a number of proteins were identified as differentially expressed. In the individually labelled samples, changes in the proteome were observed. Eyes with PEX contained higher levels of proteins involved in inflammation, oxidative stress, and coagulation, suggesting that these mechanisms are involved in the pathogenesis in PEX. The levels of β/γ-crystallins were significantly increased in PEX, which is a novel finding. In the lens capsules from individuals with PEX, changes in the lipid composition was observed with time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry. These changes remain to be elucidated. By multivariate analysis, lens opacities were the first, and PEX the second most important predictor for cataract surgery, the later accounting for a 2.38-fold increased risk for cataract surgery.

La spectrométrie de masse est une technique analytique permettant de mesurer le ratio masse sur charge d’un ion. Cette technique, très répandue en chimie analytique permet d’élucider la composition moléculaire de mélanges complexes à partir de systèmes homogénéisés. De ce fait, toute l’information sur la distribution spatiale des molécules est perdue. L’imagerie par spectrométrie de masse (IMS) a été inventée afin de résoudre ce problème et permettre d’élucider la distribution spatiale de molécules cibles sur des sections tissulaires minces provenant de tissus biologiques tels que de mammifères ou de plantes. L’un des grands avantages de l’IMS est sa complémentarité à l’histopathologie, technique permettant de révéler la structure ainsi que la localisation de certaines biomolécules à partir de sections tissulaires minces. Cependant, cette dernière se limite principalement aux protéines et aux molécules pouvant avoir une interaction spécifique avec un anticorps. L’IMS permet la détection d’une vaste gamme de biomolécules allant des petits métabolites aux polymères de haut poids moléculaire. Parmi les biomolécules détectables par IMS, les lipides attirent de plus en plus l’attention des analystes. En effet, ils occupent différentes fonctions clés au sein des systèmes biologiques, autant structurales que métaboliques, comme constituants des parois cellulaires, acteurs de la signalisation cellulaires ainsi que dans le stockage d’énergie. Leur intérêt est d’autant plus important qu’aucune technique histologique classique ne permet actuellement de détecter de façon spécifique les différentes classes de lipides. De façon générale, l’IMS de lipides est effectuée en utilisant la désorption-ionisation laser assistée par matrice (MALDI). Ce procédé permet de révéler l’emplacement de ii différentes classes de molécules en exploitant l’affinité que ces dernières ont pour une matrice particulière. Au-delà du choix de la matrice, d’autres paramètres tels que le mode de déposition de la matrice, le choix des solvants ainsi que le type de lavage utilisé vont également affecter le type de molécules détectés lors d’une analyse MALDI. Malgré les très bonnes performances du MALDI pour l’analyse de lipides, ce mode d’analyse se limite souvent aux lipides polaires facilement ionisables. Les lipides neutres comme le cholestérol (CHO) et les triacylglycérols (TAGs) sont impliqués à différents niveaux de fonctions biologiques fondamentales. Ainsi, nous avons développé trois stratégies permettant l’analyse de ces lipides neutres et de faibles abondances comme les gangliosides, directement à partir de sections tissulaires minces par MALDI ainsi que par désorption-ionisation laser classique (LDI). L’implication du cholestérol en tant que molécule structurale et précurseur de la synthèse de diverses hormones et vitamines, en fait une cible de choix pour l’analyse par IMS. Historiquement, l’analyse du cholestérol par MALDI permettait de le détecter sous sa forme déshydratée. De ce fait, il était impossible de le distinguer des autres métabolites tels que ses esters qui produisaient le même fragment. Afin de permettre l’IMS du cholestérol intact nous avons développé une nouvelle technique de préparation d’échantillons reposant sur le dépôt d’une couche nanométrique d’argent (16±2 nm) sur une section tissulaire mince par pulvérisation. Cette technique permet d’ioniser spécifiquement le cholestérol intact ainsi que divers acides gras sous forme d’adduits d’argent, et ce, avec une haute résolution spatiale (5 µm). iii Au-delà du cholestérol et des acides gras, une autre classe de lipides neutres très abondants, les triglycérides, reste difficilement analysable par MALDI IMS. En effet, les TAGs constituent la principale classe de lipides impliqués dans le stockage énergétique au niveau cellulaire. Ce rôle comme source d’énergie fait des TAGs un acteur incontournable de plusieurs maladies métaboliques telles que la stéatose hépatique, l’athérosclérose ainsi que la maladie d’Alzheimer. La difficulté d’analyser les TAGs par IMS provient de leur fragilité en milieu acide ainsi que de leur faible tendance à former des adduits sodium nécessaire à leurs analyses. En considérant ces limites, nous avons développé une méthodologie de préparation d’échantillon en deux étapes permettant l’analyse hautement spécifique des TAGs par LDI IMS. Dans un premier temps, les sections tissulaires minces sont initialement exposées à une solution aqueuse contenant un tampon carbonate à base de sodium (pH 10.3, 85 mM) ainsi que d’acétate de sodium (250 mM) afin de facilité la formation d’adduit sodium et de limiter la fragmentation des TAGs en source. Par la suite, une couche nanométrique d’or (28±3 nm) est déposée sur la section afin de permettre l’analyse des TAGs par IMS à haute résolution spatiale (> 10 µm). Lorsque ces derniers ont une abondance réduite dans les sections tissulaires, cette méthode permet aussi l’analyse d’esters de cholestérol (CE). La maladie de Hunter est une maladie génétique caractérisée par l’accumulation de glycosaminoglycanes (GAGs) ainsi que de l’accumulation secondaire de gangliosides. Ce phénomène est dû à l’absence de l’enzyme iduronate-2-sulfatase (IdS) qui permet la dégradation des GAGs. L’accumulation des GAGs et des gangliosides a pour conséquence l’apparition de problèmes fonctionnels et neurologiques majeurs entrainant la mort. Il existe une thérapie de remplacement enzymatique où une forme recombinante de l’enzyme IdS est injectée aux patients. Cette thérapie permet de rétablir le métabolisme normal des GAGs et iv gangliosides dans tous les organes sauf le cerveau où la barrière hémato-encéphalique empêche l’IdS recombinante d’atteindre les zones affectées. L’étude de la composition moléculaire des dépôts de GAGs et gangliosides au niveau cérébral constitue un défi important afin de comprendre la progression des troubles neurologiques engendrés par cette accumulation. À cette fin, nous avons développé une méthode MALDI spécifique à l’analyse des gangliosides à partir de sections tissulaires minces de cerveau de souris simulant la maladie Hunter (IdS-KO). Cette méthode d’analyse par MALDI IMS permet une révélation immuno-histochimique (IHC) des dépôts suivant l’analyse IMS. Nous avons pu visualiser cinq types de gangliosides dont quatre spécifiques au dépôt présent dans les cerveaux révélés par IHC sur la même section tissulaire. Cette étude nous a permis de distinguer pour la première fois des GM3 et GM2 selon la composition de leur chaine latérale et non de leur chaine polysaccharidique révélée par l’analyse IHC. / Mass spectrometry (MS) is an analytical technique that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. This technique is widely used in analytical chemistry to solve the molecular composition of complex homogenized samples. The use of homogenized samples means that all the information with respect to the initial distribution of analytes is lost. Imaging mass spectrometry (IMS) is an MS technique which is able to provide the spatial localization of a given analyte on a surface, such as thin tissue sections from various animal sources. One of the greatest advantages of IMS is its complementarity with histopathology which normally reveals the general structure of thin tissue sections as well as the localization of certain biomolecules such as proteins or of any molecules capable of specific interactions with an antibody. On the other hand, IMS is capable of imaging a wide variety of biomolecules ranging from small metabolites to the high molecular weight proteins and polymers. Among these, lipids are of particular interest for their key involvements in many biological processes. Their interest is even greater when considering that lipid imaging by classical histology is unable to differentiate between all lipid species. IMS of lipids is typically performed using matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI). MALDI IMS can differentiate various classes of lipids and their localization within a thin tissue section by taking advantage of the specific affinity that different classes of lipids have for different matrices. The matrix deposition process, along with the choice of solvents, are key parameters that need to be considered in MALDI IMS. While MALDI offers great coverage of the phospholipidome, it fails miserably for neutral lipid analysis. Indeed, cholesterol and triacylglycerols (TAGs) are two classes of neutral lipids with very important vi biological roles which are extremely difficult to image by MALDI. We have developed three new strategies that enables the detection of neutral lipids, some of which are expressed in low abundance such as gangliosides, directly from thin tissue section using either MALDI or laser desorption/ionization (LDI). Cholesterol is a precursor of many key biomolecules such as vitamins and hormones. It’s also a major component of the cellular membrane. MALDI IMS allows in some cases imaging of the dehydrated form of cholesterol. Unfortunately, detecting cholesterol as such makes it impossible to distinguish some of its metabolites which ionize in a similar fashion and dissociate to produce the same ions. To address this issue, we have developed a new sample preparation method involving the deposition of a nanometer scale silver layer (16±2 nm) over a thin tissue section. This enables the detection by LDI MS of intact cholesterol and some fatty acid species as silver adducts with up to 5 µm in spatial resolution. Beyond cholesterol and fatty acids, TAGs is another class of highly abundant neutral lipids still poorly detected by MALDI IMS. As TAGs are the main molecules involved in energy storage of cells, they have been implicated in many metabolic diseases such as non- alcoholic fatty liver disease, atherosclerosis and even Alzheimer’s disease. The reason why TAGs are poorly detected by MALDI comes from two key factors. First, TAGs are unstable in acidic environments, typical of MALDI matrices. Second, competition effects for the ionizing proton provided by the MALDI matrix prevent TAGs from easily ionizing through this main ionization process. To overcome these limitations, we have developed a new two-step sample preparation method for TAG LDI IMS. We initially deposited a solution of carbonate buffer (pH 10.3, 85 mM) and sodium acetate (250 mM) on the tissue section to increase the amount vii of available sodium for enhanced TAG ionization. The second step consisted of sputtering a nanometer scale UV absorbing gold layer (28±3 nm) that allows for the detection of TAGs by LDI IMS with spatial resolution as low as 10 µm. When TAGs are present in low amounts in the tissue section, this method also enables the detection of cholesterol esters. Hunter’s disease is a genetic disease characterized by the abnormal accumulation of glucoaminoglycans (GAGs) and the secondary accumulation of gangliosides due to the lack of iduronate-2-sulfatase (IdS) enzyme which controls their degradation. The accumulation of both GAGs and gangliosides form deposits which induces various functional issues to different organs as well as neurologic disorders. To minimize these effects, an enzyme replacement therapy has been developed. Unfortunately, it shows efficacy in all organs except the brain due to the inability of the recombinant enzyme to cross the blood-brain barrier. To further our knowledge of the progression of the disease, using a mouse model of Hunter’s disease we have developed a MALDI based method to specifically image gangliosides in brain deposits with a spatial resolution of 5 µm. This method also permits subsequent ganglioside staining by immunohistochemtry of the tissue section. With this method, we have identified four types of ganglioside which are specific to the Hunter’s disease pathology. We were also able to detect two types of deposits, one which is enriched in short chain gangliosides and the other in long chain gangliosides.