The determinants of health expenditures have been studied extensively for the past 50 years and income has been seen as the major driver. The focus has rarely left developed countries which raises the question as to whether the same positive relationship exists in developing countries as well. The purpose of this thesis is to answer this question by conducting a fixed effect regression on a sample of 38 countries labelled as the least developed in the world by the United Nations with data stretching between 2000 to 2017. The results indicate a weaker relationship in the sample compared to estimates on developed countries. However, due to a lack of theoretical guidance on how health expenditures are determined and indications that omitted variable bias is present, the results do not provide definitive conclusions.

Understanding how car travel and ownership respond to income and fuel prices, and how that response varies between households is crucial for car use policies and forecasts. This thesis, consisting of two papers, aims to investigate this by estimating the intemporal income and fuel price elasticities of car use using micro registry panel data on all Swedish households from 1998 to 2018. In Paper I, the income and fuel price elasticities of vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT) is estimated for all Swedish households using a linear fixed effects model. In order to investigate how different groups respond, the elasticities are estimated by income group and municipality type. The effect of income and fuel prices on VKT is largest in the middle of the income distribution but is relatively stable across municipality types. The effect of fuel prices on VKT is largest in densely populated municipalities compared to rural municipalities. Moreover, it is shown that the income elasticity is underestimated if income variable is misspecified. Paper II utilises a discrete-continuous model accounting for the effect of income and fuel prices on car ownership. It is shown that income impacts car ownership and VKT conditional on car ownership of similar magnitude, while fuel prices primarily impact VKT conditional on car ownership. Furthermore, we also estimate the model on six partially overlapping sample periods and find that the income elasticity has decreased over time, while the absolute fuel price elasticity increased up until the early 2010s and decreased thereafter. / <p>2022-10-13: ISBN (PDF) has been added in the E-version.</p>

Understanding how car travel and ownership respond to income and fuel prices, and how that response varies between households is crucial for car use policies and forecasts. This thesis, consisting of two papers, aims to investigate this by estimating the intemporal income and fuel price elasticities of car use using micro registry panel data on all Swedish households from 1998 to 2018. In Paper I, the income and fuel price elasticities of vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT) is estimated for all Swedish households using a linear fixed effects model. In order to investigate how different groups respond, the elasticities are estimated by income group and municipality type. The effect of income and fuel prices on VKT is largest in the middle of the income distribution but is relatively stable across municipality types. The effect of fuel prices on VKT is largest in densely populated municipalities compared to rural municipalities. Moreover, it is shown that the income elasticity is underestimated if income variable is misspecified. Paper II utilises a discrete-continuous model accounting for the effect of income and fuel prices on car ownership. It is shown that income impacts car ownership and VKT conditional on car ownership of similar magnitude, while fuel prices primarily impact VKT conditional on car ownership. Furthermore, we also estimate the model on six partially overlapping sample periods and find that the income elasticity has decreased over time, while the absolute fuel price elasticity increased up until the early 2010s and decreased thereafter.

The housing market is one of the most important markets for many economic agents. Large differences in the local market across Sweden suggest regional heterogeneity, however. This study aims to answer if the price and income elasticities of demand for small houses vary between different types of Swedish municipalities. This answer is explored in the light of the central place theory and location theory to see if they follow a hierarchal structure across space. To test this empirically, the 290 municipalities were grouped based on the Swedish Association of Local Authority and Regions’ definitions and tested group-wise using a log-log fixed-effect average hedonic price model using data for 2013-2020. The main findings indicate some differences in the estimates of price and income elasticities between different types of municipalities, but mixing results whether they follow a hierarchal relationship. The conclusions changes depending on which scale one measure, which indicate how local the housing market is.

Yes / : Understanding how cancer incidence evolves during economic growth is useful for forecasting the economic impact of cancerous diseases, and for governing the process of resources allocation in planning health services. We analyse the relationship between economic growth and cancer incidence in order to describe and measure the influence of an increasing real per capita income on the overall rate of cancer incidence. Method:We test the relationship between real per capita income and the overall rate of cancer incidence with a cross-sectional analysis, using data from the World Bank and the World Health Organization databases, for 165 countries in 2008. We measure the elasticity of cancer incidence with respect to per capita income, and we decompose the elasticities coefficients into two components: age-effect and lifestyle-effect. Results: An Engel’s model, in a double-log quadratic specification, explains about half of the variations in the age-standardised rates and nearly two thirds of the variations in the incidence crude rates. All the elasticities of the crude rates are positive, but less than one. The income elasticity of the age-standardised rates are negative in lower income countries, and positive (around 0.25 and 0.32) in upper middle and high income countries, respectively. Conclusions:These results are used to develop a basic framework in order to explain how demand-side economic structural changes may affect the long run evolution of cancer incidence. At theoretical level, a J-Curve is a possible general model to represents, other things being equal, how economic growth influence cancer incidence.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo estimar a elasticidade renda e preço da demanda por gás natural no Brasil para o setor industrial brasileiro. O segmento de consumo industrial representa cerca de dois terços do consumo de gás natural no país, destacando sua importância estratégica na elaboração de política energética relacionada ao gás. Este trabalho apresenta também o incremento nas trocas internacionais de gás natural e a perspectiva de aumento do uso desse energético no Brasil e no mundo. Alguns desafios ainda se colocam para a efetiva globalização dessa indústria, como: a necessidade de realização de investimentos em infraestrutura de produção, transporte e distribuição; o aprimoramento do acesso às principais reservas do hidrocarboneto; e as incertezas com relação à evolução da demanda. Utiliza-se o estudo estatístico econométrico para estimar as elasticidades preço e renda, ou seja, para investigar como a demanda industrial brasileira reage frente a um aumento ou diminuição de preço do gás e das variações na renda disponíveis no Brasil. Como proxy da renda industrial utilizam-se os dados do PIB industrial brasileiro. Após identificar que as séries estudadas eram não estacionárias, optou-se pela utilização do conceito de cointegração. Os resultados obtidos por meio do referido modelo mostraram que a demanda estudada é muito mais sensível a variações do preço do gás natural do que a variações na renda. Desse modo, constatou-se que, no Brasil, preços mais competitivos obtêm melhores resultados para o crescimento da demanda por gás natural do que aumentos da renda. / The purpose of the present study is to estimate the elasticity, mainly in terms of price and income, of the demand for gas natural in the Brazilian industrial sector. The industry represents around two-thirds of the natural gas consumption in the country, highlighting strategic importance in creating energy policy related to natural gas. This paper also presents the evolution in international trade of natural gas and the perspectives of increased in the use of this energy source in Brazil and worldwide. Some challenges still lay ahead for effective intensification of the gas industry in the country, such as: the increase of investments in infrastructure for production, transport and distribution; the development to the access to major hydrocarbon reserves; the improvements to deal with uncertainties regarding the evolution of demand. Econometric tools are used to estimate price and income elasticity for the Brazilian industrial sector, in other words, to investigate how the natural gas demand reacts to an increase / decrease in the price of gas and in the available income. The industrial GDP is used as a proxy for income. After determining that the series under study were non-stationary, the co-integration approach was chosen and Vector Error Correction Model (VEC Model) was applied. The obtained results show that the price elasticity in the industrial sector in Brazil is significantly higher than income elasticity.

This licentiate thesis examines the development of the life insurance industry during the period 1855-1914. The aim with the study is to recognise dimensions not frequently addressed by previous research on the insurance industry, namely the impact of social dimensions, including the implicit and explicit economic importance of social movements and the diffusion of knowledge in society at large for the development of the life insurance industry. The study shows that income and price had limited importance in explaining the demand for life insurance before the 20th century and that this can be attributed to a lack of sufficient knowledge regarding financial issues and to a far too high access cost in acquiring a life insurance for a large part of society. The development of the life insurance industry must therefore be understood through improved knowledge both on the part of the life insurance companies and on part of the consumers. The licentiate further shows how diffusion of knowledge throughout society also was due to a diffusion of democratic ideas and the rise of social movements, movements that life insurance actors were a part of. These actions helped open up the financial market for the masses and probably also strengthened the trust towards the industry. It is however hard to dismiss the life insurance actors’ engagement in women’s movement as a cover-up for other disguised motives not so honourable, while a direct economic gain for the life insurance industry is hard to establish.

<p>This licentiate thesis examines the development of the life insurance industry during the period 1855-1914. The aim with the study is to recognise dimensions not frequently addressed by previous research on the insurance industry, namely the impact of social dimensions, including the implicit and explicit economic importance of social movements and the diffusion of knowledge in society at large for the development of the life insurance industry. The study shows that income and price had limited importance in explaining the demand for life insurance before the 20th century and that this can be attributed to a lack of sufficient knowledge regarding financial issues and to a far too high access cost in acquiring a life insurance for a large part of society. The development of the life insurance industry must therefore be understood through improved knowledge both on the part of the life insurance companies and on part of the consumers. The licentiate further shows how diffusion of knowledge throughout society also was due to a diffusion of democratic ideas and the rise of social movements, movements that life insurance actors were a part of. These actions helped open up the financial market for the masses and probably also strengthened the trust towards the industry. It is however hard to dismiss the life insurance actors’ engagement in women’s movement as a cover-up for other disguised motives not so honourable, while a direct economic gain for the life insurance industry is hard to establish.</p>

The Indian urban rental market is complex and yet ever-changing, with the ups and downs of housing demand playing a fundamental role in the affordability and stability of the market. This paper determines the income and price elasticities of demand using the demand function and Slutsky equation, respectively, for the urban rental market in order to help craft suitable national housing policy. Through this analysis, it is determined that the urban rental price elasticity of demand is -0.93 and the income elasticity is 0.81, suggesting that rental price subsidies and private income taxes are the most effective policy measures to ensure affordability in urban India.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo estimar a elasticidade renda e preço da demanda por gás natural no Brasil para o setor industrial brasileiro. O segmento de consumo industrial representa cerca de dois terços do consumo de gás natural no país, destacando sua importância estratégica na elaboração de política energética relacionada ao gás. Este trabalho apresenta também o incremento nas trocas internacionais de gás natural e a perspectiva de aumento do uso desse energético no Brasil e no mundo. Alguns desafios ainda se colocam para a efetiva globalização dessa indústria, como: a necessidade de realização de investimentos em infraestrutura de produção, transporte e distribuição; o aprimoramento do acesso às principais reservas do hidrocarboneto; e as incertezas com relação à evolução da demanda. Utiliza-se o estudo estatístico econométrico para estimar as elasticidades preço e renda, ou seja, para investigar como a demanda industrial brasileira reage frente a um aumento ou diminuição de preço do gás e das variações na renda disponíveis no Brasil. Como proxy da renda industrial utilizam-se os dados do PIB industrial brasileiro. Após identificar que as séries estudadas eram não estacionárias, optou-se pela utilização do conceito de cointegração. Os resultados obtidos por meio do referido modelo mostraram que a demanda estudada é muito mais sensível a variações do preço do gás natural do que a variações na renda. Desse modo, constatou-se que, no Brasil, preços mais competitivos obtêm melhores resultados para o crescimento da demanda por gás natural do que aumentos da renda. / The purpose of the present study is to estimate the elasticity, mainly in terms of price and income, of the demand for gas natural in the Brazilian industrial sector. The industry represents around two-thirds of the natural gas consumption in the country, highlighting strategic importance in creating energy policy related to natural gas. This paper also presents the evolution in international trade of natural gas and the perspectives of increased in the use of this energy source in Brazil and worldwide. Some challenges still lay ahead for effective intensification of the gas industry in the country, such as: the increase of investments in infrastructure for production, transport and distribution; the development to the access to major hydrocarbon reserves; the improvements to deal with uncertainties regarding the evolution of demand. Econometric tools are used to estimate price and income elasticity for the Brazilian industrial sector, in other words, to investigate how the natural gas demand reacts to an increase / decrease in the price of gas and in the available income. The industrial GDP is used as a proxy for income. After determining that the series under study were non-stationary, the co-integration approach was chosen and Vector Error Correction Model (VEC Model) was applied. The obtained results show that the price elasticity in the industrial sector in Brazil is significantly higher than income elasticity.