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This thesis aims to reveal the magnitude of the income elasticity of health expenditure and the impact of non-income determinants of health expenditures in the Canadian Provinces. Health can be seen as a luxury good if the income elasticity exceeds unity and as a necessity good if the income elasticity is below unity. The motivation behind the analysis of the determinants of health spending is to identify the forces that drive the persistent increase in health expenditures in Canada and to explain the disparities in provincial health expenditures, thereby to prescribe sustainable macroeconomic policies regarding health spending. Panel data on real per capita GDP, relative price of health care, the share of publicly funded health expenditure, the share of senior population and life expectancy at birth have been used to investigate the determinants of Canadian real per capita provincial total, private and government health expenditures for the period 1975-2002. Dynamic models of health expenditure are analyzed via Generalized Instrumental Variables and Generalized Method of Moments techniques. Evidence confirms that health is far from being a luxury for Canada and government health expenditures are constrained by the relative prices. Results also cast doubt upon the power of quantitative analysis in explaining the increasing health expenditures.

This thesis aims to reveal the magnitude of the income elasticity of health expenditure and the impact of non-income determinants of health expenditures in the Canadian Provinces. Health can be seen as a luxury good if the income elasticity exceeds unity and as a necessity good if the income elasticity is below unity. The motivation behind the analysis of the determinants of health spending is to identify the forces that drive the persistent increase in health expenditures in Canada and to explain the disparities in provincial health expenditures, thereby to prescribe sustainable macroeconomic policies regarding health spending. Panel data on real per capita GDP, relative price of health care, the share of publicly funded health expenditure, the share of senior population and life expectancy at birth have been used to investigate the determinants of Canadian real per capita provincial total, private and government health expenditures for the period 1975-2002. Dynamic models of health expenditure are analyzed via Generalized Instrumental Variables and Generalized Method of Moments techniques. Evidence confirms that health is far from being a luxury for Canada and government health expenditures are constrained by the relative prices. Results also cast doubt upon the power of quantitative analysis in explaining the increasing health expenditures.

This paper estimates the income elasticity of government pharmaceutical spending and assesses the simultaneous effect of such spending on gross domestic product (GDP). Using a panel dataset for 136 countries from 1995 to 2006, we employ a two-step instrumental variable procedure where we first estimate the effect of GDP on public pharmaceutical expenditure using tourist receipts as an instrumentforGDP. In the secondstep,weconstructanadjusted pharmaceutical expenditure series where the response of public pharmaceutical expenditure to GDP is partialled out and use this endogeneity adjusted series as an instrument for pharmaceutical expenditure. Our estimations show that GDP has a strong positive impact on pharmaceutical spending with elasticity in excess of unity in countries with low spending on pharmaceuticals and countries with large economic freedom. In the second step, we find that when the quantitatively large reverse effect of GDP is accounted for, public pharmaceutical spending has a negative effect on GDP per capita particularly in countries with limited economic freedom.

This study investigated the demand patterns of poor households during a period of rising prices. Focus was on three main constructs namely the poor, rising prices and the demand patterns. The study was on Bophelong, a township in South Africa. This study was conducted from an empirical, quantitative approach which was preceded by a literature review. The main objective of conducting the literature review was to provide a theoretical framework for questionnaire design and empirical work. Cross sectional data was collected at Bophelong households. On completion of the survey, the poor were selected from the non-poor by means of a poverty line. The poor were further divided into two categories, namely moderately poor and the very poor. Moderately poor households were categorised by an income ranging 50% to 99% inclusively of their household poverty line. The very poor households were categorised by an income in the range of 0 to 49% inclusively of their poverty line. Using the above division, the total poverty rate was 56% of the total sample, 26% being moderately poor and 30% very poor. The poverty gap ratio for all the poor in the sample was 0.48, meaning that on average, the poor needed 48% of their current income to reach their poverty line. This ratio was 0.29 for the moderately poor households and 0.69 for the very poor households. A logistic regression done on the determinants of poverty in Bophelong showed that household size, age of the household head, monthly household income and the employment status of the household head were significant in determining poverty. The monthly average household income in Bophelong was R2 910. For the moderately poor households it was R1 641 for the and R932 for the very poor households. Household size was 3.96 for the whole sample size, 2.97 for the non-poor households, 4.2 for the moderately poor households and 4.7 for the very poor households. The study revealed that demand patterns of the poor differ from those of the non-poor. In addition the moderately poor households‟ demand patterns differ from the very poor An analysis of the poor‟s demand patterns during rising prices: the case of Bophelong household. The greatest part of income of the poor is spent on basic food stuffs. The very poor spent more than half of their income (53%) on food. The study indicated that bread is a giffen good only to the very poor households where quantity demanded moves in the same direction with price. In the non-poor households, bread is regarded inferior. A commodity can be overly a necessity, but the degree of necessity differs with a households‟ economic status. In some cases, a commodity was a necessity in the very poor households but a luxury in the non-poor. The way households substitute one good for another depends on their income levels. In conclusion, the study recommends that for poverty alleviation policies to effectively target the very poor in reducing malnutrition and hunger, these very poor should be studied separetely from the poor households. This is because households of different poverty levels face different challenges. A more detailed and deeper study relating to the demand structure of the poor is recommended. There is also a need to explore the survival means of the poor as to direct policy actions aimed at alleviating poverty among the poor in general. / Thesis (PhD (Economics))--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2013

Este trabalho tem como principal objetivo analisar as despesas com saúde diante de um cenário de envelhecimento populacional, no Brasil, em 2008-2009. Especificamente, objetiva-se detectar quais são os determinantes das despesas relacionadas à saúde, avaliando o quanto a idade influencia na determinação das despesas com assistência à saúde. Além da idade, serão analisadas outras variáveis como a renda, nível de escolaridade, gênero, cor ou raça declaradas pelo indivíduo, e fatores relacionados à localidade. O método de obtenção dessas estimativas foi o tobit. Além disso, objetiva-se calcular a elasticidade-renda das despesas com assistência à saúde, comparando famílias que possuem idosos com as famílias que não possuem idosos. Para isso foram utilizados dados da POF (Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares) 2008-2009. Os resultados mostram que as variáveis que se destacaram como determinantes na despesa com assistência à saúde no Brasil foram a renda, a idade e a escolaridade. Um aumento na renda causa um aumento na despesa com saúde quase na mesma proporção. Distinguindo famílias com e sem idosos, um aumento de 10% na renda causa um aumento na despesa com saúde em 8,84% para famílias sem idosos e em 9,21% para famílias com idosos. Planos de saúde, tratamentos dentários e tratamentos médicos e ambulatoriais podem ser considerados como bens superiores, de acordo com os resultados. / The main objective of this study is to analyze health expenditures in the face of a scenario of an aging population, in Brazil, in 2008-2009. Specifically, the objective is to identify the determinants of health-related expenditures, evaluating the influence of the age in the determination of health care expenditures. Beyond the age, other variables such as the income, level of education, gender, color or race declared by the individual, and factors related to the local areas will be analyzed. The method of obtaining these estimates was the tobit. Furthermore, the objective is to estimate the income elasticity of the expenditure on health care, comparing families that have elders with families which do not have elders. To this end, data from HBS (Household Budget Survey) 2008-2009 where used. The results show that the variables that stood out as determinants of health care expenditure in Brazil were income, age and education. An increase in income causes an increase in health spending of almost the same proportion. Differentiating families with and without elderly members, a 10% increase in income causes an increase in health spending of 8.84% for families without elderly and 9.21% for families with elderly pearsons. Health plans, dental and medical treatments and outpatient treatments can be considered as superior goods, according to the results.

This study examines which monetary aggregates, namely nominal M0, M1 and M2, can be used by the People’s Bank of China to conduct monetary policy. The model includes real M0, M1 and M2 as the dependent variable respectively and their determinants, such as real income, real inflation rate, and real rate of one-year saving deposit. Johansen (1988) and Johansen and Juselius’s (1990) procedures are used to estimate the long-run relationship between the monetary aggregates and their variables. Short-run model is applied to M0, M1 and M2 respectively to see whether the error term is negative to validate the significance of the long-run relationship using the Ordinary Least Square estimation.

Organic consumption is currently experiencing a boom of sales on the Swedish and international market. Whether this occurrence is a contemporary trend or if it will prove to be sustainable in the future, the demographics of the so-called ‘green consumer’ are of great interest for economic agents on markets such as foods and textiles. Therefore, the writers have chosen to highlight this topic by focusing on the relation between income and purchase of organic products.. Economic data for the Swedish market has been gathered and analyzed through various statistical and macroeconomic perspectives, where the basis has been Kelvin Lancaster’s models of consumer choice theory. The results showed that income does not generally have a direct effect on the choice of purchasing an organic good in Sweden, although it cannot be fully dismissed when discussing the demographics of the green consumer. Other factors are of importance as well, including education, marital status and geographical location. The study of the green consumer is a rather new area and this study, along with its previous counterparts, has proved it difficult to draw any firm conclusions regarding the characteristics of the organic consumer. Therefore, future studies within this area will have plenty to discover about a subject of increasing interest and importance on the market. / Ekologisk konsumtion upplever för närvarande en försäljningsboom på den svenska och internationella marknaden. Oavsett om detta är en tillfällig trend eller om det kommer bestå såväl i framtiden, är demografierna av de såkallade ’gröna konsumenterna’ av stort intresse för ekonomiska agenter inom marknader såsom textil och dagligvaror. Därför har författarna valt att framhäva detta ämne genom att fokusera på relationen mellan inkomst och inköp av ekologiska produkter. Ekonomisk data för den svenska marknaden har samlats in och analyserats genom olika statistiska och makroekonomiska perspektiv, där basen har varit Kelvin Lancasters modeller av konsumentteori. Resultaten har visat på att inkomst generellt inte har en direkt effekt på valet att köpa en ekologisk vara i Sverige, även om denna faktor inte helt kan uteslutas när demografier av den gröna konsumenten diskuteras. Andra faktorer har också betydelse, däribland utbildning, civilstånd och geografisk lokalisering. Studier om den gröna konsumenten är ett relativt nytt område, och denna kandidatuppsatsen har, tillsammans med föregående rapporter inom ämnet, funnit det svårt att dra några fasta slutsatser om den ekologiska konsumentens karaktärer. Därför kommer framtida studier inom detta område ha mycket att upptäcka om ett ämne av ökande intresse och angelägenhet på marknaden.

<p>Organic consumption is currently experiencing a boom of sales on the Swedish and international market. Whether this occurrence is a contemporary trend or if it will prove to be sustainable in the future, the demographics of the so-called ‘green consumer’ are of great interest for economic agents on markets such as foods and textiles. Therefore, the writers have chosen to highlight this topic by focusing on the relation between income and purchase of organic products.. Economic data for the Swedish market has been gathered and analyzed through various statistical and macroeconomic perspectives, where the basis has been Kelvin Lancaster’s models of consumer choice theory. The results showed that income does not generally have a direct effect on the choice of purchasing an organic good in Sweden, although it cannot be fully dismissed when discussing the demographics of the green consumer. Other factors are of importance as well, including education, marital status and geographical location. The study of the green consumer is a rather new area and this study, along with its previous counterparts, has proved it difficult to draw any firm conclusions regarding the characteristics of the organic consumer. Therefore, future studies within this area will have plenty to discover about a subject of increasing interest and importance on the market.</p> / <p>Ekologisk konsumtion upplever för närvarande en försäljningsboom på den svenska och internationella marknaden. Oavsett om detta är en tillfällig trend eller om det kommer bestå såväl i framtiden, är demografierna av de såkallade ’gröna konsumenterna’ av stort intresse för ekonomiska agenter inom marknader såsom textil och dagligvaror. Därför har författarna valt att framhäva detta ämne genom att fokusera på relationen mellan inkomst och inköp av ekologiska produkter. Ekonomisk data för den svenska marknaden har samlats in och analyserats genom olika statistiska och makroekonomiska perspektiv, där basen har varit Kelvin Lancasters modeller av konsumentteori. Resultaten har visat på att inkomst generellt inte har en direkt effekt på valet att köpa en ekologisk vara i Sverige, även om denna faktor inte helt kan uteslutas när demografier av den gröna konsumenten diskuteras. Andra faktorer har också betydelse, däribland utbildning, civilstånd och geografisk lokalisering. Studier om den gröna konsumenten är ett relativt nytt område, och denna kandidatuppsatsen har, tillsammans med föregående rapporter inom ämnet, funnit det svårt att dra några fasta slutsatser om den ekologiska konsumentens karaktärer. Därför kommer framtida studier inom detta område ha mycket att upptäcka om ett ämne av ökande intresse och angelägenhet på marknaden.</p>

This study investigated the demand patterns of poor households during a period of rising prices. Focus was on three main constructs namely the poor, rising prices and the demand patterns. The study was on Bophelong, a township in South Africa. This study was conducted from an empirical, quantitative approach which was preceded by a literature review. The main objective of conducting the literature review was to provide a theoretical framework for questionnaire design and empirical work. Cross sectional data was collected at Bophelong households. On completion of the survey, the poor were selected from the non-poor by means of a poverty line. The poor were further divided into two categories, namely moderately poor and the very poor. Moderately poor households were categorised by an income ranging 50% to 99% inclusively of their household poverty line. The very poor households were categorised by an income in the range of 0 to 49% inclusively of their poverty line. Using the above division, the total poverty rate was 56% of the total sample, 26% being moderately poor and 30% very poor. The poverty gap ratio for all the poor in the sample was 0.48, meaning that on average, the poor needed 48% of their current income to reach their poverty line. This ratio was 0.29 for the moderately poor households and 0.69 for the very poor households. A logistic regression done on the determinants of poverty in Bophelong showed that household size, age of the household head, monthly household income and the employment status of the household head were significant in determining poverty. The monthly average household income in Bophelong was R2 910. For the moderately poor households it was R1 641 for the and R932 for the very poor households. Household size was 3.96 for the whole sample size, 2.97 for the non-poor households, 4.2 for the moderately poor households and 4.7 for the very poor households. The study revealed that demand patterns of the poor differ from those of the non-poor. In addition the moderately poor households‟ demand patterns differ from the very poor An analysis of the poor‟s demand patterns during rising prices: the case of Bophelong household. The greatest part of income of the poor is spent on basic food stuffs. The very poor spent more than half of their income (53%) on food. The study indicated that bread is a giffen good only to the very poor households where quantity demanded moves in the same direction with price. In the non-poor households, bread is regarded inferior. A commodity can be overly a necessity, but the degree of necessity differs with a households‟ economic status. In some cases, a commodity was a necessity in the very poor households but a luxury in the non-poor. The way households substitute one good for another depends on their income levels. In conclusion, the study recommends that for poverty alleviation policies to effectively target the very poor in reducing malnutrition and hunger, these very poor should be studied separetely from the poor households. This is because households of different poverty levels face different challenges. A more detailed and deeper study relating to the demand structure of the poor is recommended. There is also a need to explore the survival means of the poor as to direct policy actions aimed at alleviating poverty among the poor in general. / Thesis (PhD (Economics))--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2013