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Many personality tests that have been developed outside of Asia (usually in Western countries such as the USA and UK) have been imported into the region, translated verbatim, and administered with little attention to the cultural differences in concepts and underlying properties. Whilst there has been a necessity to use these tests given few local alternatives, making decisions based on tests alien to the local culture may result in inconsistent decisions that possess no validity. This thesis then addresses crucial issues surrounding the importation of foreign-developed personality assessment instruments and their use in China. Research conducted with the NEO-FFI in Asia has demonstrated (although not without critics: Block, 1995) the cross-cultural applicability of the Five-Factor Model (FFM) (Costa & McCrae, 1985) of personality (McCrae, Costa, del Pilar, Rolland & Parker, 1988; McCrae & Allik, 2022; McCrae & Costa, 1997). However, and although this research may provide support for the model, there is a lack of research that assesses the link between personality and workplace performance in Asia. Recent developments in indigenous psychology have, despite the depth of support for the FFM, led researchers to challenge its completeness. With Cheung et al. (1996) (a) suggesting the existence of a ‘blind-spot’ in Western personality assessment, (b) finding six major personality factors instead of five in Chinese samples and (c) reporting that similar patterns can be found outside of China, in both Singapore and the USA, there is sufficient evidence pointing to a need to investigate the structure and psychometric properties of both Western and Chinese tests in Asia. Moreover, and despite the favourable cross-cultural acceptance of the FFM, there has been a dearth of research providing links between personality and performance at work across cultures. The major questions covered in this thesis are: (a) to what extent is a translated, work-specific measure of personality, based on the FFM structurally similar, reliable, and useful in performance prediction in China? (b) does a locally-developed measure of indigenous personality traits possess acceptable psychometric properties in China? (c) does the indigenous measure have incremental utility over the Western test in its ability to predict performance outcomes in China? (d) does the indigenous Chinese test have acceptable psychometric properties in a Western nation? (e) does the indigenous Chinese test have incremental utility over the Western test in its ability to predict performance in a Western nation? In order to answer these questions, a research program involving 7 organisations, 2 universities and 1040 participants was instigated. A pilot study was carried out with 28 students from an Australian University and 12 counsellors from a vocational training institutions in Hong Kong to assess the psychometric properties of the 15FQ+ outside of its country of origin. Subsequently, the 15FQ+ was administered to 116 staff from an Australian private hospital in order to introduce a real-world organisational setting to the research. The UK-developed 15FQ+ (Fifteen Factor Questionnaire Plus: Psychometrics Limited, 2002) then underwent a program of translation (into Traditional and Simplified Chinese), piloting, revision and trialling. The trialling involved the administration of this questionnaire alongside the Chinese version of the NEO-FFI and the collection of grades from 178 students at a Hong Kong university. Following thorough analyses of the items comprising the questionnaire, it was further refined before being administered with the CPAI-2 (Cross-Cultural Personality Assessment Inventory: Cheung, 2002) to 437 professionals from 4 Hong Kong organisations and 100 ship employees from mainland China. These two questionnaires were then administered in their English forms to 121 Australian University students and 48 hospital staff. Finally, bureau-scored data was collected from the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Australia to enable cross-cultural structural comparisons of 15FQ+ to be carried out. The analyses revealed that the 15FQ+ had adequate psychometric properties in all Western countries noted above. The Chinese version also had strong psychometric properties and “essential identity” with the UK data in Hong Kong. However, the mainland China data revealed poor reliability and a number of scales lacked identity with the UK data. Scores on 15FQ+ scales were shown to be related to outcome measures such as grade performance in students in both Australia and Hong Kong and to perceived work performance in Australian hospital workers. Likewise, the 15FQ+ demonstrated utility in the prediction of performance appraisal competencies for Airline staff in Hong Kong and scale scores were found to correlate with some performance appraisal competencies for Chinese ship crew. The indigenous CPAI-2 revealed poor reliability for most of its scales in all datasets. Joint factor analyses of the 15FQ+ and CPAI-2 indigenous scales revealed that only in Australia did the CPAI-2 measure a unique factor not accounted for by the Western test. In China, the CPAI-2 scales loaded on global scales of the Western test. Furthermore, whilst a small number of scales were found to correlate with performance dimensions, these scales also correlated highly with 15FQ+scales, suggesting a degree of overlap in measurement. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that the CPAI-2 added no incremental predictive ability over and above the 15HQ+ in relation to workplace performance. This research has provided a significant contribution to our understanding of personality in Asia. The program of studies investigating the criterion-related validity of both Western and local tests in Asia added to the body of knowledge that exists regarding the construct validity of FFM tests. Additionally, the use of narrow-band, primary traits as predictors has further enhanced knowledge of the relationship between personality and performance in Asia. In light of the results surrounding the CPAI-2 the research has cast some doubt upon the position that there may be a ‘blind-spot’ in Western personality psychology, but this doubt paradoxically related to the Chinese data, rather than the Australian data. Finally, with a strong practical component, the research program has provided strong evidence to human resource professionals of the utility of Western-developed personality assessments that are based on a long-debated model, translated and applied with local sensitivity.

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In recent years there has been considerable growth in research concerned with commercial sponsorship and its effects. A range of conceptual and theory-guided models have been proposed, established psychological theories applied, and several construct level phenomena described, in an effort to explain the way sponsorship works and how it might impact audiences. The current research consolidates and adds to this literature by outlining how an item and relational information framework (Einstein & Hunt, 1980; Hunt & Einstein, 1981) can be used to explain the cognitive processes involved when consumer audiences encounter commercial sponsorship communications. Item information can be described as that which is processed in an individual’s mind when seemingly unrelated entities are encountered, while relational information is that which is processed when seemingly related entities are encountered. These cognitive processes are assumed to be relatively automatic, and hence not under the conscious control of the individual. Item information is useful in that it promotes item salience and distinctiveness, and assists memory retrieval by enhancing item discriminability. Relational information is useful in that it promotes associative relationships between items, and assists memory retrieval by enabling one item to serve as a cue for other related items. Any given set of items will initially be encoded predominantly as either item or relational information based on apparent similarities or dissimilarities, but optimal memory performance occurs when additional encoding is encouraged by also orienting people toward the processing of the alternative form of information. In the context of sponsorship, it is proposed that brand-event relationships which are perceived as incongruent (e.g., an electronics brands sponsoring an equestrian event) will be processed most naturally in people’s minds as item information, while those which are perceived as congruent (e.g., a swimwear brand sponsoring a swimming event) will be processed most naturally as relational information. Accordingly, memory for incongruent sponsorships should be facilitated if people are encouraged to process additional brand-event relational information, and memory for congruent sponsorships should be facilitated if people are encouraged to process additional brand-specific item information. Conceptualising sponsorship within an item and relational information framework provides an explanation for a range of findings from previous sponsorship research, such as that congruent sponsorships are better remembered than incongruent sponsorships (see Cornwell, Weeks, & Roy, 2005), that the provision of information linking unrelated sponsors and events together can enhance subsequent memory for the pairing (Cornwell, Humphreys, Maguire, Weeks, & Tellegen, 2006; Simmons & Becker-Olsen, 2006), and that people often tend to be biased toward attributing sponsorships to those brands that most obviously relate to an event, and to those brands that are prominent in the marketplace (Johar & Pham, 1999; Pham & Johar, 2001). Two sets of experiments are reported. Experimental Set One is composed of five cued recall experiments and assesses the applicability of using an item and relational information framework with respect to awareness related sponsorship outcomes. In addition to manipulating brand-event congruence and type of supplementary sponsor information within each experiment, direction of cueing (event cue with brand target, brand cue with event target), competitor brand presence, and type of competitor brand information are manipulated across experiments. This set of experiments demonstrates general support for using an item and relational information framework in sponsorship; congruence effects are consistently found, relational information is shown to facilitate both brand recall and event recall, and item information is shown to facilitate brand recall when competitor brands are not present in the sponsorship context. An unintended item information manipulation also demonstrates the value of providing event-contextualised brand-specific item information. Relational information is shown to increase erroneous recall (in the form of incorrect intrusions from other brands, and recall of events to competitor brands) while item information appears to help limit erroneous recall. The findings fall short of fitting entirely within an item and relational information framework in that differential sponsor information effects for each level of brand-event congruence are not observed in every experiment, and in that the intended item information manipulation does not consistently facilitate cued recall performance. These shortcomings however, provide insight into basic item and relational information ideas when elaborate stimuli are employed, and when cued recall is used as the dependent measure. The results additionally demonstrate that cueing direction is an important influence which should be considered when evaluating sponsorship awareness effects. Further, it is shown that competitor presence in the sponsorship environment may not impact overall levels of correct recall for sponsors and events, although competitor presence may increase incorrect recall of non-sponsor brands to event cues, and recall of events to non-sponsor brand cues. Experimental Set Two is composed of two experiments and was designed to determine if and how the item and relational information framework might generalise to non-awareness related sponsorship outcomes (namely attitude toward the brand and brand purchase intent). Here again, brand-event congruence and type of supplementary sponsor information are manipulated within each experiment, and competitor brand presence is manipulated across experiments. Results show that the item and relational information framework is not directly generalisable to predicting non-awareness related sponsorship outcomes, but that it does provide value by highlighting the need to consider differences in the types of communications sponsors employ (especially when seeking to promote the brand-event relationship using relational information). The experiments demonstrate that sponsors tend to fare better than competitors regardless of whether the competitor is named in the context of the sponsorship, and that brand-event congruence makes no overall difference to attitudinal and purchase intent ratings (in contrast to what is often reported in the literature). Additionally, the results suggest that attitudinal and purchase intent sponsorship outcomes may potentially be moderated by inferred sponsor motives and mediated by perceptions of sponsorship exploitation (derived from the presence of competitors in the sponsorship environment). These suggestions are however more speculative. The research adds to the sponsorship literature by providing an explanation of the possible cognitive processes involved when people encounter commercial sponsorship communications, most specifically with respect to awareness related sponsorship outcomes. It additionally demonstrates that sponsorship can be a useful applied context in which theoretical memory ideas can be tested and refined. That is, sponsorship offers an alternative to using single word and word pair stimuli in memory research, where manipulation of important variables is nonetheless possible, and where presentation of stimuli can be both incidental and intentional. Future research directions for an item and relational information framework as applied to sponsorship are suggested, together with research aimed at further testing basic item and relational information ideas.

<p>Performance management is not a new area within IO psychology research, however recently there has been growing interest with how to increase its effectiveness. Scholars are calling for more research to examine the antecedents of actual performance management behaviors that managers enact on a daily basis. The current study addresses this gap by utilizing Implicit Person Theory to understand the effect of supervisor perceptions on their behaviors that contribute towards the goal(s) of performance management. Previous research has suggested that Implicit Person Theory leads to more coaching behaviors, however, has failed to identify an explanatory mechanism. The current study relies on the three-component model of commitment to offer a mediating variable between Implicit Person Theory and differing degrees of performance management behaviors due to its more proximal relationship to the target behaviors compared to the broad antecedent of perception of others. The researchers tested this mediation using survey data from a broad sample of supervisors across the United States. Managers’ Incrementalism was positively and significantly related to discretionary performance management behaviors via affective commitment to performance management, however the relationship between Incrementalism and focal performance management behaviors via continuance commitment was non-significant. This research extends previous performance management research by providing evidence for the influence of key supervisor attitudes and implicit beliefs on varying levels of performance management behaviors. Theoretical contributions, limitations and future research directions are discussed.</p>

<p>When the #MeToo movement hit its height, many of the powerful figures who were accused of harassment were people who had been previously seen as virtuous (Stockdale, Bell, Crosby, & Berdahl, 2019). The present study investigated how embodied power influenced sexual harassment (SH) judgments by manipulating the initiator to embody responsibility-focused, or self-focused power (compared to a control), and whether moral licensing, operationalized through moral crediting and moral credentialing, would mediate relations between power embodiment and SH judgments. Participants were 376 adults (42% female) residing in the U.S. who were recruited through Mturk. Moral crediting was significantly higher for perpetrators described as embodying responsibility-focused power, compared to a control condition (no power cues), which in turn was higher than perpetrators described as embodying self-focused power. Moral crediting was positively related to false accusations, SH severity (opposite of predictions), and severity of punishment. Additionally, there were gender differences in moral crediting such that the effects of power-embodiment on moral crediting were stronger for women than for men, though both were significant. Taken together, the findings of this study indicate that some initiators evade censure as their actions are seen as less severe when others believe them to have embodies responsibility-focused power. This should serve as an indication that SH is not always done by “bad actors”, but by those who appear to be virtuous. These findings should inform future SH policies, research, and training.</p>

Previous research has examined the process through which employees use the cues present within their work environments to form justice perceptions, suggesting the potential for individual employee characteristics to influence this justice perception formation process. In two studies (an experimental study and a field study where longitudinal data were collected from employees in a new work environment), I investigated whether gender influenced how employees processed non-simultaneously presented justice cues when forming their overall justice perceptions. Drawing on the gender selectivity hypothesis and fairness heuristic/uncertainty management theories, I predicted that the justice cues employees encounter later (rather than earlier) would be processed more deliberately by women as compared to men (i.e., I expected justice cues presented later would more strongly predict the overall justice perceptions of women compared to men, and that women’s justice perceptions would change more over time than men’s). Study 1 experimental results showed no gender x (in)justice cue order effect on justice perceptions. Study 2 field results did not show that women’s justice perceptions varied more than men’s, nor did the first justice perception formed predict later justice perceptions more strongly for men compared to women. These (replicated) null effects suggest follow-up research is needed, which may require a re-examination of how gender and organizational justice have been positioned theoretically in the literature. Additionally, if further replicated, these attentional patterns, which seem gender invariant, hint at the practical importance of considering how justice is cued by organizational authorities, and how justice can be enacted in ways that reinforce the equitable and respectful treatment of employees.

<p dir="ltr">Organizational newcomers strive to adjust when they start new jobs, yet little is known about how remote and hybrid work structures influence this process. Previous research has adopted variable-centered approaches to explore the frequency with which newcomers engage in dozens of proactive behaviors in traditional, face-to-face work environments. The current study builds upon this work to capture the socialization process in modern work environments. Adopting a person-centered approach, this study 1.) identifies profiles of newcomers’ perceptions of their work environments, 2.) identifies profiles of newcomer proactive behaviors, 3.) examines the effect of virtuality on these two sets of profiles, and 4.) explores which behavior profiles are associated with the most favorable changes in adjustment.</p><p dir="ltr">A sample of 464 organizational newcomers responded to a survey about their environment perceptions, the frequency with which they engaged in a variety of proactive behaviors, and their feelings of adjustment. Latent profile enumeration resulted in three environment profiles (Average Environment, Peer-Centric Environment, and Favorable Environment) and seven behavior profiles (Low Frequency Seeker, Moderate Frequency Seeker, High Frequency Seeker, Direct Solo Seekers, Typical Limit Testers, Social Limit Testers, and Balanced Limit Testers). While the hypothesized virtual environment and behavior profiles were not found, one environment profile (Average Environment) and two behavior profiles (Low Frequency Seekers; Direct Solo Seekers) were significantly and positively associated with virtuality. Further, newcomers in the Average Environment profile tended to be Low Frequency Seekers, while newcomers in the Favorable Environment profile tended to be Moderate or High Frequency Seekers. Additionally, the Direct Solo Seekers were more likely to perceive their environment as Favorable, relative to the Low Frequency Seekers.</p><p dir="ltr">A total of 173 of the newcomers completed a follow-up survey about their feelings of adjustment. Significant differences across behavior profiles in changes in adjustment (while controlling for newcomer tenure) demonstrate the complex dynamics of the newcomer adjustment process. Specifically, the two highly virtual behavior profiles – Low Frequency Seekers and Direct Solo Seekers – showed different relationships with outcomes over time, suggesting that some behavioral repertoires are more effective than others for adjusting in virtual environments. Supplemental analyses further showed that the behavior profiles offered incremental validity over a main effects model of proactive behaviors in predicting feelings of social acceptance. Additionally, supplemental analyses demonstrated that jointly accounting for environment and behavior profiles can meaningfully explain differences in adjustment across newcomers. Collectively, this study shows the utility of using person-centered approaches for understanding how configurations of environment perceptions and proactive behaviors shape newcomers’ experiences in modern work environments.</p>