Human faces, bodies, and hands convey critical social information (e.g., emotions, goals, and desires). Infants, like adults, are sensitive to such social information. Unlike infants’ knowledge of the structure of the human face and body, not much is known about infants’ knowledge of hands and feet. The current study tested infants for their preference between intact hand images and ones in which the same hands were distorted (i.e., location of at least one finger was altered to distort the typical structure of the hand). Infants at 3.5 months of age had a preference for the reorganized hand image, demonstrating that 3.5-month-olds have sufficient knowledge of the configural properties of hands to discriminate between intact versus distorted images. Furthermore, when the same images were inverted, infants displayed no such preference, indicating that infants were not relying solely on low-level features to detect differences between intact versus reorganized hands. Contrastingly, when shown images of intact and reorganized feet, even 9-month-olds did not exhibit evidence of sensitivity to structural disruptions in images of feet. These results indicate that infants’ structural knowledge of hands, but not necessarily feet, develops along the same trajectory as their knowledge of faces and bodies.

A natação para bebês e crianças de até 2 anos de idade é a atividade física mais comumente realizada por essa população em todo mundo. Tal sucesso se deve aos possíveis benefícios que essa prática pode trazer para o desenvolvimento infantil. Contudo, a investigação dos efeitos da natação sobre essa população ainda são incipientes. No que concerne ao método, há carência de um protocolo padronizado para observação e registro do comportamento do bebê e da criança no meio líquido. Há diferentes métodos de pegadas, de posturas e de posicionamento descritos comprometendo a confiabilidade das investigações. O objetivo do presente estudo foi desenvolver um aparato de suporte à locomoção aquática de bebês e de crianças de 3 a 24 meses de idade. Buscou-se um aparato que permitisse um controle na forma de sustentação do bebê e que ao mesmo tempo permitisse e discriminasse as ações motoras demonstradas pelos participantes. O desenvolvimento do aparato consistiu de: I. Revisão de literatura para identificar os comportamentos a serem facilitados com o aparato; II. Elaboração do memorial descritivo do aparato com os propósitos a que se destina, suas características e especificidades técnicas, simulações de sua utilização etc.; III. Construção do protótipo do aparato e sua testagem; IV. Testagem de sua funcionalidade. A funcionalidade do aparato foi analisada por duas formas. 1- Pela apreciação dos peritos a partir dos filmes das sessões de testes com os bebês. Participaram cinco peritos com formação no estudo do comportamento motor (2 doutores e 3 mestres) e com experiência sobre o nadar de bebês e crianças. 2- Pela qualificação e quantificação das ações dos bebês e das crianças no uso do aparato. Dez indivíduos com idades variando entre 5 e 22 meses participaram das sessões de testes. Todos foram nascidos a termo e com o APGAR de oito ou mais no primeiro e no quinto minuto. Os peritos foram unânimes em considerar que o aparato funcionou e que está adequado ao uso que se destina (principalmente para pesquisas). Houve restrição sobre a segurança do bebê, particularmente no bebê mais jovem, apontada por dois peritos que foi prontamente corrigida no aparato. Todos os indivíduos puderam utilizar o aparato manifestando variabilidade intra e inter-individual. As análises das ações indicaram que o aparato deu apoio suficiente para a locomoção sem restringir a diversidade de padrões / Swimming for babies and children up to 2 years of age is the most commonly performed physical activity for this population worldwide. This success is due to the possible benefits that this practice can bring to their development. However, the research on the effects of swimming on this population are still incipient. Regarding the method, there is a lack of a standardized protocol for observing and recording behavior of babies and children in water. There are different techniques for holding babies, positioning them and postures, though none have been subject of investigation thus compromising research reliability. The aim of this study was to develop an apparatus to support aquatic locomotion of infants and children, 3-24 months of age. We sought an apparatus to allow a standardized holding technique to sustain the baby as well as to give enough freedom for the participants to experiment and show different motor actions. The development of the apparatus consisted of: I. Literature review to identify the behaviors to be \"facilitated\" by the apparatus; II. Elaboration of a descriptive memorial for the apparatus, describing its intended purpose, its technical features, its use and simulations etc.; III. Constructing and testing the apparatus; IV. The testing of its functionality in two ways. 1 - Expert assessment of the apparatus from video recordings of testing sessions with babies. There were five experts on motor behavior (two PhDs and three Masters) and baby swimming. 2 Description of babies action while in the use of the apparatus. Ten individuals with ages varying between 5 to 22 months took part in the testing sessions. They were all full term born and got 8 or more on the APGAR done in the first and fifth minute. The experts were unanimous in considering the apparatus functional and suitable for its intended use (research mostly). There was a concern on babiessafety, particularly for the young ones, made by two experts which has been promptly corrected in the apparatus. All babies and children could use the apparatus when intra and inter-individual variability were manifested. The analysis of their actions indicated that the apparatus gave sufficient support for their locomotion without restraining them the diversity of patterns

A natação para bebês e crianças de até 2 anos de idade é a atividade física mais comumente realizada por essa população em todo mundo. Tal sucesso se deve aos possíveis benefícios que essa prática pode trazer para o desenvolvimento infantil. Contudo, a investigação dos efeitos da natação sobre essa população ainda são incipientes. No que concerne ao método, há carência de um protocolo padronizado para observação e registro do comportamento do bebê e da criança no meio líquido. Há diferentes métodos de pegadas, de posturas e de posicionamento descritos comprometendo a confiabilidade das investigações. O objetivo do presente estudo foi desenvolver um aparato de suporte à locomoção aquática de bebês e de crianças de 3 a 24 meses de idade. Buscou-se um aparato que permitisse um controle na forma de sustentação do bebê e que ao mesmo tempo permitisse e discriminasse as ações motoras demonstradas pelos participantes. O desenvolvimento do aparato consistiu de: I. Revisão de literatura para identificar os comportamentos a serem facilitados com o aparato; II. Elaboração do memorial descritivo do aparato com os propósitos a que se destina, suas características e especificidades técnicas, simulações de sua utilização etc.; III. Construção do protótipo do aparato e sua testagem; IV. Testagem de sua funcionalidade. A funcionalidade do aparato foi analisada por duas formas. 1- Pela apreciação dos peritos a partir dos filmes das sessões de testes com os bebês. Participaram cinco peritos com formação no estudo do comportamento motor (2 doutores e 3 mestres) e com experiência sobre o nadar de bebês e crianças. 2- Pela qualificação e quantificação das ações dos bebês e das crianças no uso do aparato. Dez indivíduos com idades variando entre 5 e 22 meses participaram das sessões de testes. Todos foram nascidos a termo e com o APGAR de oito ou mais no primeiro e no quinto minuto. Os peritos foram unânimes em considerar que o aparato funcionou e que está adequado ao uso que se destina (principalmente para pesquisas). Houve restrição sobre a segurança do bebê, particularmente no bebê mais jovem, apontada por dois peritos que foi prontamente corrigida no aparato. Todos os indivíduos puderam utilizar o aparato manifestando variabilidade intra e inter-individual. As análises das ações indicaram que o aparato deu apoio suficiente para a locomoção sem restringir a diversidade de padrões / Swimming for babies and children up to 2 years of age is the most commonly performed physical activity for this population worldwide. This success is due to the possible benefits that this practice can bring to their development. However, the research on the effects of swimming on this population are still incipient. Regarding the method, there is a lack of a standardized protocol for observing and recording behavior of babies and children in water. There are different techniques for holding babies, positioning them and postures, though none have been subject of investigation thus compromising research reliability. The aim of this study was to develop an apparatus to support aquatic locomotion of infants and children, 3-24 months of age. We sought an apparatus to allow a standardized holding technique to sustain the baby as well as to give enough freedom for the participants to experiment and show different motor actions. The development of the apparatus consisted of: I. Literature review to identify the behaviors to be \"facilitated\" by the apparatus; II. Elaboration of a descriptive memorial for the apparatus, describing its intended purpose, its technical features, its use and simulations etc.; III. Constructing and testing the apparatus; IV. The testing of its functionality in two ways. 1 - Expert assessment of the apparatus from video recordings of testing sessions with babies. There were five experts on motor behavior (two PhDs and three Masters) and baby swimming. 2 Description of babies action while in the use of the apparatus. Ten individuals with ages varying between 5 to 22 months took part in the testing sessions. They were all full term born and got 8 or more on the APGAR done in the first and fifth minute. The experts were unanimous in considering the apparatus functional and suitable for its intended use (research mostly). There was a concern on babiessafety, particularly for the young ones, made by two experts which has been promptly corrected in the apparatus. All babies and children could use the apparatus when intra and inter-individual variability were manifested. The analysis of their actions indicated that the apparatus gave sufficient support for their locomotion without restraining them the diversity of patterns

The purpose of this study was to determine and evaluate the dietary intake of pregnant women living in this geographical area, evaluate how their diets related to their iron status, how their nutrient intakes compared with other studies, and how their iron status and diet affected infant iron status and development, as assessed by the Bayley Scale of Infant Development. The study involved 32 pregnant women who were between 8 to 14 weeks gestation and 20 to 35 years of age. They were followed through pregnancy and their infants were followed until three months of age. Three-day dietary records, a questionnaire and a blood sample were completed at the initial visit (8 to 14 weeks gestation). Six of the nutrients analyzed were consumed in amounts less than the Recommended Dietary Allowances: iron 77%, magnesium 58%, zinc 51%, vitamin B6 65%, folacin 30% and pantothenic acid 89%. Use of a prenatal vitamin/mineral supplement was beneficial in increasing most of these nutrients to within acceptable range. Zinc was not included in the supplement and thus remained at 51 % of the RDA. Magnesium was increased to 80% of the RDA. Nutrient intakes were very similar to the USDA Nationwide Food Consumption Survey for pregnant women (1985). Mean iron status of the subjects was within acceptable range. A food frequency questionnaire and a blood sample were analyzed at 32 weeks gestation. Iron and vitamin C intake remained fairly constant throughout pregnancy. Fifty-six percent of the subjects had become depleted of iron stores at this time. Cord blood analysis revealed a relationship between maternal iron status and infant iron status at birth. Infant iron status and diet were analyzed at three months gestational stage. Infant iron status appeared to be within normal range. Maternal iron status and diet did not have a significant effect on infant iron status or infant development as assessed by the Bayley Scale of Infant Development.

The relationship between infants’ neural processing of and visual preferences for attractive and unattractive faces was investigated through the integration of event-related potential and preferential looking methods. Six-month-olds viewed color images of female faces previously rated by adults for attractiveness. The faces were presented in contrasting pairs of attractiveness (attractive/unattractive) for 1.5-second durations. The results showed that compared to attractive faces, unattractive faces elicited larger N290 amplitudes at left hemisphere electrode sites (PO9) and smaller P400 amplitudes at electrode sites across both hemispheres (PO9 and PO10). There were no significant differences between infants’ overall looking times based on attractiveness, however, a significant relationship was found between amplitude and trial looking time; larger N290 amplitudes were associated with longer trial looking times. The results suggest that compared to attractive faces, unattractive faces require greater cognitive resources and longer initial attention for visual processing. / text

No description available.

Maternal psychological well-being is one of many factors that shape the interactions a woman has with her infant. According to Belsky's (1984) Determinants of Parenting Process Model, he suggests that maternal personality and psychological well-being play a significant role in the observation of parenting behaviors. This model was utilized as the overarching framework for this dissertation. The dissertation, in the form of three manuscripts, outlines important factors within the marital relationship that impact postpartum depression, then exploring the moderation of depression by knowledge of infant development in four behavioral scales observed during a mother-infant interaction. Finally, two maternal behaviors that impact child outcomes were utilized as predictors of infant social-emotional and cognitive outcome, while testing for moderation by infant age.Results. In study one, women were more likely to report postpartum depression when they experienced more arguments with family and lower relationship depth. The second study found that knowledge of infant development moderated maternal reports of postpartum depression, thus allowing women with higher knowledge to maintain positive behaviors compared to women with low or average knowledge. The third study indicated that verbal stimulation resulted in higher scores for infant social-emotional and cognitive development, whereas maternal sensitivity was the only variable impacting social-emotional development. The test of moderation by infant age found mothers of older infants did speak more to their older infants, but the differences were minimal.Conclusion. Marital relationships play a significant role in promoting healthy maternal psychological well-being during motherhood. When psychological well-being is compromised via postpartum depression, decreases in maternal behaviors result in lower scores during maternal-child interactions. Maternal sensitivity and verbal stimulation uniquely contributed to infant outcomes. In addition, infant age may impact the observance of these two maternal behaviors resulting in increased or decreased observances based on the infant's age.Thus, use of Belsky's Determinants of Parenting Process Model within this dissertation confirmed the importance of maternal personality and psychological well-being in parenting behaviors. Mothers impacted by postpartum depression suffered a reduction in parenting behaviors, though higher knowledge appeared to buffer these negative effects. Implications for interventions and future work are discussed within each study.

No description available.

Early intimate interactions between mothers and their infants are characterised by mutuality and reciprocity. Although a great deal is known about the distal processes such as gaze and affect, by concentrating on touch this research addresses a key aspect of early life interactions that has received far less attention. this research comprises a single major quasi-experimental and observational longitudinal study, exploring the naturalistic interactions between mothers and their full-term infants (n=32). Dyads were videotaped in their own homes at five age points across the first year - 6 weeks, 3,6,9,12 months. A contextual variation was introduced at 6 months by providing a selection of novel toys for the dyads to play with. Each second of a selected 5 minute period of interaction of both free and toy play contexts were coded using a coding schedule for the type of touch, location of touch, intensity of touch, gaze direction and affectual displays. Repeated measures of analyses of variance revealed differences in the duration and locations of touch, and changes in maternal and infant affect and gaze across the first year. Patterns in these non-verbal communicative strategies were shaped by both age and context. Results revealed that overall maternal touch decreased over the first year of life and the mothers used more passive than active forms of touch when interacting with their infants. The duration of gaze at face decreased for mothers and infants over time, while gaze at body and object increased. Infant initiated touch was both low in frequency and duration but showed commonalities across dyads. The results are discussed drawing on insights from ethology, attachment theory, systems theory and the complexity of the multimodal features of interactive exchange. The results underscore the implications for tactile stimulation in early patterns of communication.

Holistic image processing is tied to expertise and is characteristic of face and body processing by adults. Infants process faces holistically, but it is unknown whether infants process body information holistically. In the present study, we examined whether infants discriminate changes in body posture holistically. Body posture is an important nonverbal cue that signals emotion, intention, and goals of others even from a distance. In the current study, infants were tested for discrimination between body postures that differ in limb orientations in three conditions: in the context of the whole body, with just the limbs that change orientation, or with the limbs in the context of scrambled body parts. Nine-month olds discriminated between whole body postures, but failed in the isolated parts and scrambled body conditions, indicating that they use holistic processes to discriminate body information. In contrast, 3.5-month olds failed to discriminate between whole body postures, therefore no conclusion can be drawn about their ability to process bodies holistically. These results indicate that infants process body information holistically during the first year of life, but there are developmental changes in the processing of body information from 3.5 to 9 months of age.