Parental trauma symptomatology can profoundly impact a child’s social/emotional and cognitive development, a phenomenon known as transgenerational trauma. Thus far, the majority of research examining transgenerational trauma has studied the concept within mothers from Westernized cultures and their children and adolescents. Very little attention has been given to families from diverse sociocultural contexts, and few studies have examined the effects of transgenerational trauma in infancy, a period of time marked by numerous developmental considerations. The current study addresses the limitations of past work by examining transgenerational trauma in refugee/infant dyads. Building upon existing models from previous studies, this research utilizes moderated mediation models to examine (1) the relation between maternal trauma symptomatology and atypical parenting behavior in predicting infant development, (2) the mediating role of atypical parenting behavior in the relation between maternal trauma symptomatology and infant development, and (3) the role of parental resiliency in mitigating the relation between maternal trauma symptomatology and atypical parenting behaviors. Data was collected from 61 refugee mother/infant dyads. Measures included culturally informed assessment of maternal trauma symptomatology, emotion-focused coping, problem-focused coping, psychological flexibility, observational coding of atypical parenting behaviors, and standardized assessment of infant cognitive and social/emotional development. Findings did not provide support for the hypothesized model of transgenerational trauma. Post-hoc analyses indicated that greater maternal trauma symptomatology is related to increased negative/intrusive parenting behavior, and increased maternal psychological flexibility is related to improved infant cognitive development. Implications for study findings are reviewed and directions for future research are delineated.

Longer breastfeeding durations may enhance cognition and accelerate motor development; motor development, and in particular, crawling, may lead to dramatic changes in cognition. Based on these empirical relations, the hypothesis that crawling mediates breastfeeding duration and cognitive outcome was tested. Specifically, it was hypothesized that longer breastfeeding durations would significantly predict both earlier crawling and higher cognitive scores at 2 years of age, that earlier crawling would also predict higher cognitive scores, and that earlier crawling would account for part of the relationship between longer breastfeeding durations and higher cognitive scores. A sample of 44 full term infants from Winnipeg, Manitoba was followed longitudinally between birth and 2 years of age. Data on breastfeeding duration and crawling were collected through daily parent checklists, with supplemental breastfeeding information obtained via questionnaires. Near the toddlers’ 2nd birthdays, cognitive abilities were assessed with the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory: Words and Sentences (Fenson et al., 1993) and the Parent Report of Children’s Abilities (Saudino et al., 1998). All 3 key variables were measured on continuous scales, and a mediational analysis based on Baron and Kenny’s (1986) classic approach of 3 regressions was used. Several covariates were considered for inclusion in the regressions, but none reached significance in preliminary tests and thus, were not included. In the first 2 regression analyses, exclusive and partial breastfeeding durations significantly predicted neither cognitive scores (p = .59) nor age of crawling attainment (p = .41). The 3rd regression analysis showed a significant, small-to-medium effect size for earlier crawling attainment predicting higher cognitive scores (p < .05, adjusted R2 = .09). However, crawling onset had no effect on the breastfeeding-cognition link. The overall test of the mediation was inconclusive, due to low power. The significant finding between age of crawling onset and cognitive outcomes at 2 years of age may be due to earlier crawling altering the course of development, to reverse causation whereby more cognitively advanced infants are motivated to crawl sooner, or to a 3rd variable affecting both crawling and cognition. Future research should continue to explore motor and cognitive connections in infant development. / May 2005

Fathers in two-parent families are becoming increasingly involved in infant care, highlighting the need to understand the determinants and influence of father-infant interactions. Paternal responsiveness is a core component of positive father-infant interactions. This study investigated associations between paternal responsiveness and infant development; and paternal low mood and paternal responsiveness. Participants were a sub-sample of father-infant dyads (n=47) from a UK community cohort study: The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. The Mellow Parenting Coding System was used to measure paternal responsiveness within a video-recorded father-infant interaction at 12 months. Infant development was assessed using the Griffiths scales at 18 months and paternal low mood was measured using the Edinburgh Post-Natal Depression Scale (EPDS) at 8 months. Linear regression analysis provided no evidence for an association between paternal responsiveness and infant development. Due to methodological limitations it is unclear whether this reflects a true null relationship. Unexpectedly, lower paternal mood (indicated by higher scores on the EPDS), was found to be associated with greater paternal responsiveness. For every standard deviation increase in EPDS score, fathers displayed approximately two additional responsiveness behaviours per minute in the observed interaction; this corresponds to a standardised effect size of 0.32 standard deviations. The mechanisms for this association are unclear, but possibilities are discussed. The finding requires replication within larger studies, but clinicians may wish to consider that fathers who achieve very low scores on measures of depressed mood may be at risk for low paternal responsiveness.

Objectives Prenatal alcohol exposure can lead to fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD), which include a broad range of cognitive, growth, behavior, and physical abnormalities. Early detection of the teratogenic effects of prenatal alcohol exposure is necessary to identify early interventions. The aim of this study is to identify the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on growth and infant development, to determine if ultrasound imaging can be used as an early identification tool, and to determine if maternal folate supplementation can mitigate the detrimental effects on growth and infant development. Methods A prospective cohort study and randomized trial from 2008 to 2014 conducted in two sites of Western Ukraine was analyzed. A sample of pregnant women who reported moderate-to-heavy alcohol consumption during pregnancy, and a sample reporting little-to-no alcohol use during pregnancy participated in a comprehensive maternal interview and screening process. Women were further randomized into micronutrient supplementation groups. Standard ultrasound examinations during pregnancy including study specific brain growth measurements, along with blood and urine samples were obtained during follow-up visits. A biometric screening was conducted at birth, along with Bayley Scales of Infant Development-II Mental Development Index (MDI) and Psychomotor Development Index (PDI) assessments at 6 and 12 months of age. Results Estimated fetal weight (EFW), abdominal circumference (AC), biparietal diameter (BPD), transverse cerebellar diameter (TCD), occipitofrontal diameter (OFD), caval-calvarial distance (CCD), and orbital diameter (OD) were significantly reduced by alcohol exposure at third trimester ultrasound (p2(7)=18.044, p=0.012), AC at third trimester (X2(5)=17.955, p=0.003), and birth weight (X2(6)=75.058, p2(11)=63.051, p Conclusions Significant reductions in fetal growth measurements during third trimester ultrasound suggest that the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure may be detectable in late pregnancy. Significant associations between multivitamin supplementation and specific growth measurements suggest that micronutrient supplementation during pregnancy, including high doses of folate, may be an early intervention to reduce the harmful effects of prenatal alcohol exposure. Further studies are needed to identify the specific micronutrients producing these effects, and to assess the appropriate level of these micronutrients necessary to provide the greatest benefit without exceeding the safe limit.

Diamond and Carey (1986) identify sensitivity to second-order relational information (i.e., spatial relations among features such as the distance between eyes) as a vital part of achieving expertise with face processing. Previous research suggests that 5-month-olds are sensitive to second-order relational information when shown line drawings of faces in which this information has been manipulated to an exaggerated degree. The present series of experiments explored infants sensitivity to second-order relational information using photographs of real faces and with second-order manipulations that were within the normal range of human variability. A discrimination study conducted with adults provided additional evidence that the second-order manipulations were within the normal range. Five- and 7- month-olds exhibited sensitivity to changes in second-order relational information. Moreover, 5-months detected second-order changes in upright but not in inverted faces, thereby exhibiting an inversion effect that has been considered to be a hallmark of second-order relational processing in adulthood. These results suggest that infants as young as 5 months of age are sensitive to second-order relational changes that are within the normal range of human variability. They also indicate that at least rudimentary aspects of face-processing expertise are available early in life.

Longer breastfeeding durations may enhance cognition and accelerate motor development; motor development, and in particular, crawling, may lead to dramatic changes in cognition. Based on these empirical relations, the hypothesis that crawling mediates breastfeeding duration and cognitive outcome was tested. Specifically, it was hypothesized that longer breastfeeding durations would significantly predict both earlier crawling and higher cognitive scores at 2 years of age, that earlier crawling would also predict higher cognitive scores, and that earlier crawling would account for part of the relationship between longer breastfeeding durations and higher cognitive scores. A sample of 44 full term infants from Winnipeg, Manitoba was followed longitudinally between birth and 2 years of age. Data on breastfeeding duration and crawling were collected through daily parent checklists, with supplemental breastfeeding information obtained via questionnaires. Near the toddlers’ 2nd birthdays, cognitive abilities were assessed with the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory: Words and Sentences (Fenson et al., 1993) and the Parent Report of Children’s Abilities (Saudino et al., 1998). All 3 key variables were measured on continuous scales, and a mediational analysis based on Baron and Kenny’s (1986) classic approach of 3 regressions was used. Several covariates were considered for inclusion in the regressions, but none reached significance in preliminary tests and thus, were not included. In the first 2 regression analyses, exclusive and partial breastfeeding durations significantly predicted neither cognitive scores (p = .59) nor age of crawling attainment (p = .41). The 3rd regression analysis showed a significant, small-to-medium effect size for earlier crawling attainment predicting higher cognitive scores (p < .05, adjusted R2 = .09). However, crawling onset had no effect on the breastfeeding-cognition link. The overall test of the mediation was inconclusive, due to low power. The significant finding between age of crawling onset and cognitive outcomes at 2 years of age may be due to earlier crawling altering the course of development, to reverse causation whereby more cognitively advanced infants are motivated to crawl sooner, or to a 3rd variable affecting both crawling and cognition. Future research should continue to explore motor and cognitive connections in infant development.

Longer breastfeeding durations may enhance cognition and accelerate motor development; motor development, and in particular, crawling, may lead to dramatic changes in cognition. Based on these empirical relations, the hypothesis that crawling mediates breastfeeding duration and cognitive outcome was tested. Specifically, it was hypothesized that longer breastfeeding durations would significantly predict both earlier crawling and higher cognitive scores at 2 years of age, that earlier crawling would also predict higher cognitive scores, and that earlier crawling would account for part of the relationship between longer breastfeeding durations and higher cognitive scores. A sample of 44 full term infants from Winnipeg, Manitoba was followed longitudinally between birth and 2 years of age. Data on breastfeeding duration and crawling were collected through daily parent checklists, with supplemental breastfeeding information obtained via questionnaires. Near the toddlers’ 2nd birthdays, cognitive abilities were assessed with the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory: Words and Sentences (Fenson et al., 1993) and the Parent Report of Children’s Abilities (Saudino et al., 1998). All 3 key variables were measured on continuous scales, and a mediational analysis based on Baron and Kenny’s (1986) classic approach of 3 regressions was used. Several covariates were considered for inclusion in the regressions, but none reached significance in preliminary tests and thus, were not included. In the first 2 regression analyses, exclusive and partial breastfeeding durations significantly predicted neither cognitive scores (p = .59) nor age of crawling attainment (p = .41). The 3rd regression analysis showed a significant, small-to-medium effect size for earlier crawling attainment predicting higher cognitive scores (p < .05, adjusted R2 = .09). However, crawling onset had no effect on the breastfeeding-cognition link. The overall test of the mediation was inconclusive, due to low power. The significant finding between age of crawling onset and cognitive outcomes at 2 years of age may be due to earlier crawling altering the course of development, to reverse causation whereby more cognitively advanced infants are motivated to crawl sooner, or to a 3rd variable affecting both crawling and cognition. Future research should continue to explore motor and cognitive connections in infant development.

FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico / O acompanhamento do desenvolvimento infantil à configurado como uma das aÃÃes mais importantes para o alcance de melhor qualidade de vida. Objetivou-se avaliar o desenvolvimento motor de crianÃas com idade entre zero e 18 meses. Estudo descritivo, transversal, avaliativo, realizado nos Centros de SaÃde da FamÃlia (CSF) dos municÃpios de Fortaleza e Sobral, Cearà (CE), Brasil. A amostra foi composta por 330 crianÃas, sendo 165 de cada municÃpio estudado. A coleta de dados ocorreu em Fevereiro-Maio/2012, foi utilizado um formulÃrio prÃ-estruturado contendo variÃveis da crianÃa e da famÃlia, a escala Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS), versÃo em portuguÃs, e o Instrumento de VigilÃncia do Desenvolvimento do MinistÃrio da SaÃde contido na Caderneta de SaÃde da CrianÃa (CSC), apÃs aprovaÃÃo pelo Comità de Ãtica em Pesquisa. Observaram-se nos resultados que no municÃpio de Fortaleza, a maioria das crianÃas à do sexo feminino, nascida de parto cesÃreo; em Sobral prevaleceu o gÃnero masculino e o parto vaginal. Em Fortaleza, 7,2% das crianÃas eram prematuras, 6,6% baixo peso ao nascer; em Sobral 8,5% de prematuros e 8,5% com baixo peso ao nascer. Em relaÃÃo ao perfil socioeconÃmico e educacional dos pais/responsÃveis pelas crianÃas, prevaleceu, em ambos os municÃpios, 11 a 13 anos de estudo, idade entre 22 e 35 anos e nÃo ter ocupaÃÃo rentÃvel. Em relaÃÃo ao perfil sÃcio demogrÃfico, a maioria tinha rede de esgoto, coleta de lixo e chÃo com cerÃmica. O desenvolvimento motor das crianÃas avaliado pela escala AIMS, em ambos os municÃpios foi classificado como normal para a maioria das crianÃas (307), conforme ocorreu em relaÃÃo ao avaliado segundo o Instrumento de VigilÃncia do MinistÃrio da SaÃde (CSC) (302 crianÃas). Ao correlacionar os dois instrumentos utilizados, encontrou-se concordÃncia entre os mesmos, porÃm pobre (k=0,096; 0,077). Analisando as classificaÃÃes dos instrumentos em separado, observando-se maior poder de concordÃncia entre as que detectam dÃficit no desenvolvimento, entÃo, foram agrupadas as classificaÃÃes em âCom DÃficitâ e âSem DÃficitâ, resultando em concordÃncia quase perfeita (k=0,879; 0,910) entre os instrumentos. Evidenciou-se associaÃÃo significativa entre idade gestacional (p=0,012; 0,000) e peso ao nascer (p=0,000; 0,000), considerando a amostra completa, para ambos os instrumentos. Encontrou-se associaÃÃo significativa entre o desenvolvimento motor quando considerada a amostra total, e os fatores de risco ao nascimento internaÃÃo hospitalar, oxigenoterapia e fototerapia. A idade materna mostrou associaÃÃo significante em Fortaleza (p=0,001; 0,004) e quando considerada a amostra completa (p=0,017; 0,016), o estado civil (p=0,054; 0,049) e a ocupaÃÃo rentÃvel em Sobral (p=0,003; 0,013), ao serem associados com as classificaÃÃes das escalas. Em relaÃÃo aos dados sociodemogrÃficos nÃo foram evidenciados associaÃÃes estatisticamente significantes com o desenvolvimento segundo os instrumentos de avaliaÃÃo. Concluiu-se que nÃo existiu diferenÃa entre o desempenho motor das crianÃas residentes nos municÃpios estudados, os instrumentos utilizados possuem alto poder de concordÃncia entre si para detecÃÃo de dÃficit, e apresentaram correlaÃÃo significante com o desenvolvimento infantil com as variÃveis: idade gestacional, peso ao nascer, internaÃÃo hospitalar, oxigenoterapia, fototerapia, idade materna, estado civil e ocupaÃÃo rentÃvel da mÃe. / The accompaniment of infant development is considered one of the most important initiatives to reach a better quality of life. We sought to evaluate motor development in babies aged zero to 18 months. This is a descriptive, transversal and evaluative study performed in Health Family Centers (CSF) of the municipalities of Fortaleza and Sobral CE), Brazil. The sample was composed of 330 children, 165 from each studied municipality. Data collection took place between February/March 2012 through a predetermined form with child and family variables using the Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS), Portuguese version and the Ministry of Health Control Protocol included in the Child Health Booklet (CSC), after approval granted by the Research Ethics Committee. According to results, in the Fortaleza municipality, most children were females born through cesarean section whereas in Sobral there was a predominance of males and natural births. In Fortaleza, 7.2% of children were premature and 6.6% had lower weight at birth while in Sobral, 8.5% were premature and 8.5% were born with low weight. As for the socioeconomic and educational profile of childrenâs parents/tutors, we found that in both municipalities the majority of them had 11 to 13 years of study, were aged 22 to 35 and did not have a paid occupation. With regards to their socio-demographic profile, most of them had basic sanitation, garbage collection service and ceramic floors. Child motor development was evaluated through the AIMS scale in both municipalities and it was considered normal for most children (307). This was corroborated by the second evaluation, made by the Ministry of Health Control Protocol (CSC) (302 children). The analysis of both documents showed agreement between them, however weak (k=0096; 0.077). When analyzing both results separately, we noticed more concordance among development deficit items. Different evaluation items were identified as âWith deficitâ or Without Deficitâ, resulting in an almost perfect concordance (k=0.879; 0.910) between both instruments. There was also an important connection between the gestational age (p=0.012; 0.000) and the weight at birth (p=0.000; 0.000), considering the complete sample for both documents. We also found a relevant concordance between motor development when considering the full sample and risks factors associated to hospitalization, oxygen therapy and phototherapy. The maternal age showed a significant correlation in Fortaleza (p=0.001; 0.004). The analysis of the full sample (p=0.017; 0.016), the marital status (p=0.054; 0.049) and paid occupations in Sobral (p=0.003; 0.013), also resulted to be closely related to the scale qualifications. As for socio-demographic data, no statistically significant associations were found with regards to development levels according to the evaluation instruments. There was no difference between the childrenâs motor performance in the two studied municipalities. Both instruments presented high concordance levels in deficit detection and a significant correlation with infant mobility considering the following variables: gestational age, weight at birth, hospitalization, oxygen therapy, phototherapy, maternal age, marital status and mother paid occupation.

Research suggests that the relationship between caregivers and their infants has a significant effect on development and well-being across the lifespan. There is a significant body of research into psychological interventions which focus on this relationship. However, there is only limited research into the impact of antenatal interventions which aim to promote the caregiver-foetus relationship, thus preventing later difficulties in the caregiver-infant relationship. Findings so far suggest that such interventions could be effective, and recommendations have been made for further studies exploring the effect antenatal interventions on the caregiver-foetus relationship. This pilot study explored the impact of a newly developed psychoeducational intervention entitled “Baby World” on the caregiver-foetal relationship. Seventy-nine females and 26 males who were expecting their first child were recruited from an NHS midwife service in London. They were randomly allocated to experimental or control groups. All participants completed questionnaires measuring antenatal attachment, mental health and childhood experiences of caregiving at baseline. Those in the experimental group then attended the Baby World class. All participants then completed the questionnaires for a second time, and then attended the standard antenatal classes. Following attendance at these classes, participants completed the questionnaires for a third time and gave anonymous responses to qualitative questions. Statistical analyses of the quantitative data indicated that the intervention did not have an impact on antenatal attachment. Results did show that antenatal attachment increased over time, whilst anxiety decreased. A significant correlation was found between recollections of maternal caring and antenatal attachment. Qualitative analysis suggested that the intervention did have an impact on aspects of the relationship. In the qualitative responses, the majority of participants wrote that the class had been a positive experience for them, and that it had increased their confidence about being a caregiver. Many of the responses indicated that the class had positively affected their skills in reflective functioning, caregiver sensitivity and attunement, and changed their perspective on how to interact with their infant. The results add to the literature regarding the impact of antenatal interventions on the caregiver-foetus relationship. Further research is needed to explore the impact of the intervention on the relationship more closely, in particular to understand which aspects of the relationship may be affected. There are several limitations of the study, in particular the small sample size and the limited number of expectant fathers who participated. Reasons for these limitations are discussed.

Smooth tracking and efficient reaching for moving objects require the ability to predict the velocity and trajectory of the object. This skill is important to be able to perceive human action and object motion in the world. This thesis explores early visual motor development in full term and preterm infants. Study I showed that horizontal eye tracking develops ahead of vertical (full term infants at 5, 7 and 9 months of age). The vertical component is also more affected when a second dimension is added during circular pursuit. It is concluded that different mechanisms appear to underlie vertical and horizontal eye movements Study II-IV compared the development of the ability to visually track and reach for moving objects in very preterm infants born &lt;32 gestational weeks to healthy infants born at term. The development of horizontal smooth pursuit at 2 and 4 months of corrected age was delayed for the preterm group (Study II). Some infants were catching up whereas others were not improving at all. A question raised by the results was whether the delay was caused by specific injuries as a result of the prematurity. However, the delays persisted when all infants with known neonatal complications and infants born small for gestational age were excluded (Study III), indicating that they were caused by prematurity per se. At 8 months corrected age preterm and full term infants were equally good at aiming reaches and successfully catching a moving object. Nevertheless, the preterm group used a bimanual strategy more often and had a more jerky and circuitous path than the full term group (Study IV). In summary, preterm infants showed a delayed visual motor development compared to infants born at term. The results of these studies suggest that there is additional diffuse damage to the visual motor system that is not related to neonatal complications as diagnosed today. Measuring smooth pursuit could potentially be a new method for early non-invasive diagnosis of impaired visual function.