Objectives: As cone beam computerized tomography is used more widely for initial data collection and treatment planning, more valuable anatomic information is at the disposal of clinicians. The scans provide a very accurate display of the patient’s anatomy and these beneficial findings can be used to prevent surgical complications as well as advancing anatomical knowledge. This study aims to expand the current knowledge on the location of the infraorbital nerve in relation to the maxillary sinus in a group of patients who had CBCT scans taken for diagnosis and treatment planning. The study also aims to determine if age, gender or ethnicity have a relationship with the location of the nerve in relation to the sinus. Materials and Methods: 821 CBCT scans were take at Temple University Kornberg School of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology from January 1, 2009 to July 31, 2013. These scans were evaluated using i-CAT computer imaging software. Patients under 18, patients without posterior or maxillary dentitions and patients who’s scans did not include the infraorbital nerve were excluded from the study. A total of four hundred three (403) CBCT scans were included in the study. Patients with visible infraorbital nerves were selected and location, age, gender and ethnicity were recorded. Individual scans had infraorbital nerves identified and examined for relationship superior to a specific tooth, and distance above the floor of the sinus. Results: After reviewing 680 scans, only 403 were included in the study due to exclusions. Scans were subdivided into age, gender, ethnicity and location of the nerve in relation to tooth position. The total average distance from the infraorbital foramen to the floor of the maxillary sinus was 23.94 mm on the right side and 22.84 mm on the left side. The average distance of males was 25.3 mm on the right and 24.27 mm on the left. The females’ average distance was 22.77 mm on the right and 21.62 mm on the left. The distance increased as the patients aged. The most common maxillary tooth inferior to the foramen was second premolar 46.65% of time, followed by the first molar 41.69% of the time. The difference between genders, right and left sides, and age groups all showed statistical significance. The differences between the ethnicities were not statistically significant. Conclusion: Based on the data collected and analyzed in the present study, the infraorbital foramen appeared to be located above the second premolar or first molar 88% of the time. The distance of the foramen from the floor of the sinus was larger in men than women. The right and left side can be different, and the distance tends to increase with the age of the patient. This information can be applied to better achieve local anesthetic delivery success, and avoid complications and nerve damage when performing procedures. / Oral Biology

A maxillary nerve block via a modified infraorbital approach, applied before rhinoscopy and nasal biopsy, would decrease nociception, minimize cardiorespiratory anesthetic effects, and improve recoveries. In a crossover study, bupivacaine or equivalent volume of saline was administered to 8 healthy dogs via a modified infraorbital approach into each pterygopalatine region. Rhinoscopy and nasal biopsy were performed. Heart rate, blood pressure, plasma cortisol and norepinephrine concentrations, purposeful movement, and pain scores were monitored. Following a 14-day washout, dogs received the alternate treatment on the contralateral side. Blood pressures were significantly higher for the saline treatment than bupivacaine treatment. Plasma cortisol concentrations in the saline treatment were significantly higher 5 minutes after biopsy than at biopsy. No other parameters were significant. Using a maxillary nerve block via a modified infraorbital approach prior to rhinoscopy and nasal biopsy reduced procedural nociception. These findings warrant further evaluation in dogs with nasal disease.

Self-regulation is the capacity to exert control over cognition, emotion, behavior, and physiology. Since chronic pain interferes with the ability to self-regulate, the primary goal of this study was to examine, in rodents, the effects of chronic pain on self-regulation processes. Sixteen male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into two groups: (1) chronic constriction injury of the infraorbital nerve (CCI-ION) and (2) naïve. Testing confirmed that CCI-ION animals had significant mechanical allodynia compared to naïve animals (p<0.001). A two-part self-regulation behavioral paradigm consisting of a cued go/no-go task and a subsequent persistence task was developed based on human paradigms. In the cued task, both groups made fewer incorrect lever presses in post-surgery trials (p<0.001); naive animals had a greater decrease in number of incorrect presses than CCI-ION animals (p=0.06). Similarly, both groups had a larger correct to total lever presses ratio in post-surgery trials (p<0.001); naïve animals had a greater increase than CCI-ION animals (p=0.06). In the persistence task, naïve animals experienced a greater decrease in lever presses (p=0.08) than did CCI-ION animals (p=0.66). These results suggest that animals experiencing chronic pain were not able to learn as well as naïve animals, and may have difficulty responding to novel environmental demands.

A anestesia do nervo maxilar no cavalo já foi descrita por diferentes autores usando várias aproximações, mas não existem muitos estudos que avaliaram sua eficácia e confiabilidade. Alguns autores consideram que dessensibilizar o nervo maxilar é difícil e pouco confiável devido a quadrantes mal definidos para a infiltração, enquanto que outros o tem descrito como potencialmente perigoso devido à proximidade com órbita e o risco de infecções. Uma alternativa seria o acesso ao nervo maxilar pelo forame infraorbitário utilizando um cateter, da mesma maneira como já realizado em cães, e com resultados bem-sucedidos. Sendo assim, o presente trabalho objetivou comparar o bloqueio do nervo maxilar pela fossa pterigopalatínica (BAPFPV) ou pelo forame infraorbitário com o uso de um cateter venoso (BFIC) em cavalos. Para tal, foram utilizadas 12 cabeças de cavalos adultos. Em cada lado da cabeça foram realizados um dos bloqueios propostos utilizando o corante azul de metileno para demarcar a área de abrangência do bloqueio. Todos os bloqueios foram realizados por veterinários sem experiência prévia. Os resultados foram avaliados mediante a dissecção dos nervos expostos ao longo do canal infraorbitário e até a fossa pterigopalatínica. Foram realizadas duas mensurações, uma determinando o comprimento (milímetros) de nervo corado com azul de metileno e a segunda avaliando o grau de impregnação do nervo pelo corante, sendo esta determinada como muito corada, parcialmente corada e não corada. O grupo BFIC apresentou média de 10,75 ± 8,08mm e o grupo BAPFPV 16,08 ± 17,22mm de impregnação do nervo maxilar pelo azul de metileno. Quanto ao grau de impregnação do nervo pelo corante, no grupo BFIC 33,3% apresentaram o nervo muito corado, 58,3% parcialmente corado e 8,3% não corado. Já no grupo BAPFPV, 41,7% apresentaram o nervo muito corado, 8,3% parcialmente corado e 50% não corado. Não foi verificada diferença estatisticamente significativa entre os grupos tanto no comprimento quanto no grau de impregnação do nervo pelo corante. Foi observado um caso de infiltração intravascular dos vasos maxilares e quatro casos de impregnação do corante na gordura retrobulbar no grupo BAPFPV. Não foram observadas essa outras complicações no grupo BFIC. De acordo com as condições experimentais deste estudo é possível concluir que as duas abordagens atingem o nervo maxilar de maneira similar, entretanto, em virtude dos resultados promissores da técnica BFIC e dos menores riscos, recomendamos a realização de estudos clínicos para a sua utilização na rotina equestre. / A number of authors using several approaches has described anaesthesia of the maxillary nerve of the horse, but it does not have many studies to evaluate its efficacy and reliability. Some authors consider desensitising the maxillary nerve to be difficult and unreliable due to poorly defined landmarks for injection, while others have also described it as potentially dangerous due to the proximity of the orbit and risk of infection. An alternative would be the approach to the nerve along the infraorbital foramen with a catheter, just as was done in dogs with successful results. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the maxillary nerve block by PTERYGOPALATINE FOSSA (BAPFPV) or the infraorbital foramen using a venous catheter (BFIC) in horses. For this purpose, were uses twelve adult horses heads. In each side of the head was carried one of the proposed blocks using the methylene blue dye to mark the area covered by the block. All blocks were performed by veterinarians without prior experience. The results were evaluated by the dissection of the exposed nerves along the infraorbital canal to the PTERYGOPALATINE FOSSA. Two measurements wre made, one determined the length (millimeters) of the nerve stained with methylene blue dye and the second evaluated the degree of impregnation by the nerve with the dye, and it was classified as highly stained, partially stained and unstained. The BFIC group presented an average of 10.75 ± 8,08mm and the BAPFPV group 16.08 ± 17,22mm of maxillary nerve impregnation by methylene blue dye. The degree of impregnation by the nerve with the dye, the BFIC group had 33,3% of the nerve highly stained, 58,3% partially stained and 8,3% unstained. At the BAPFPV group, 41,7% had the nerve highly stained, 8,3% partially stained and 50% stained. There was no statistical significant difference between the groups in both the length and degree of dye impregnation by the nerve. A case of intravascular infiltration of the maxillary vessels and four cases of retrobulbar fat dye impregnation in BAPFPV group was observed. These complications were not seen in the BFIC group. According to the experimental conditions of this study it was concluded that both approaches reach the maxillary nerve in a similar manner, however, due to the promising results of BFIC technique and lower risks, we recommend clinical studies for its use in routine equestrian.

A anestesia do nervo maxilar no cavalo já foi descrita por diferentes autores usando várias aproximações, mas não existem muitos estudos que avaliaram sua eficácia e confiabilidade. Alguns autores consideram que dessensibilizar o nervo maxilar é difícil e pouco confiável devido a quadrantes mal definidos para a infiltração, enquanto que outros o tem descrito como potencialmente perigoso devido à proximidade com órbita e o risco de infecções. Uma alternativa seria o acesso ao nervo maxilar pelo forame infraorbitário utilizando um cateter, da mesma maneira como já realizado em cães, e com resultados bem-sucedidos. Sendo assim, o presente trabalho objetivou comparar o bloqueio do nervo maxilar pela fossa pterigopalatínica (BAPFPV) ou pelo forame infraorbitário com o uso de um cateter venoso (BFIC) em cavalos. Para tal, foram utilizadas 12 cabeças de cavalos adultos. Em cada lado da cabeça foram realizados um dos bloqueios propostos utilizando o corante azul de metileno para demarcar a área de abrangência do bloqueio. Todos os bloqueios foram realizados por veterinários sem experiência prévia. Os resultados foram avaliados mediante a dissecção dos nervos expostos ao longo do canal infraorbitário e até a fossa pterigopalatínica. Foram realizadas duas mensurações, uma determinando o comprimento (milímetros) de nervo corado com azul de metileno e a segunda avaliando o grau de impregnação do nervo pelo corante, sendo esta determinada como muito corada, parcialmente corada e não corada. O grupo BFIC apresentou média de 10,75 ± 8,08mm e o grupo BAPFPV 16,08 ± 17,22mm de impregnação do nervo maxilar pelo azul de metileno. Quanto ao grau de impregnação do nervo pelo corante, no grupo BFIC 33,3% apresentaram o nervo muito corado, 58,3% parcialmente corado e 8,3% não corado. Já no grupo BAPFPV, 41,7% apresentaram o nervo muito corado, 8,3% parcialmente corado e 50% não corado. Não foi verificada diferença estatisticamente significativa entre os grupos tanto no comprimento quanto no grau de impregnação do nervo pelo corante. Foi observado um caso de infiltração intravascular dos vasos maxilares e quatro casos de impregnação do corante na gordura retrobulbar no grupo BAPFPV. Não foram observadas essa outras complicações no grupo BFIC. De acordo com as condições experimentais deste estudo é possível concluir que as duas abordagens atingem o nervo maxilar de maneira similar, entretanto, em virtude dos resultados promissores da técnica BFIC e dos menores riscos, recomendamos a realização de estudos clínicos para a sua utilização na rotina equestre. / A number of authors using several approaches has described anaesthesia of the maxillary nerve of the horse, but it does not have many studies to evaluate its efficacy and reliability. Some authors consider desensitising the maxillary nerve to be difficult and unreliable due to poorly defined landmarks for injection, while others have also described it as potentially dangerous due to the proximity of the orbit and risk of infection. An alternative would be the approach to the nerve along the infraorbital foramen with a catheter, just as was done in dogs with successful results. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the maxillary nerve block by PTERYGOPALATINE FOSSA (BAPFPV) or the infraorbital foramen using a venous catheter (BFIC) in horses. For this purpose, were uses twelve adult horses heads. In each side of the head was carried one of the proposed blocks using the methylene blue dye to mark the area covered by the block. All blocks were performed by veterinarians without prior experience. The results were evaluated by the dissection of the exposed nerves along the infraorbital canal to the PTERYGOPALATINE FOSSA. Two measurements wre made, one determined the length (millimeters) of the nerve stained with methylene blue dye and the second evaluated the degree of impregnation by the nerve with the dye, and it was classified as highly stained, partially stained and unstained. The BFIC group presented an average of 10.75 ± 8,08mm and the BAPFPV group 16.08 ± 17,22mm of maxillary nerve impregnation by methylene blue dye. The degree of impregnation by the nerve with the dye, the BFIC group had 33,3% of the nerve highly stained, 58,3% partially stained and 8,3% unstained. At the BAPFPV group, 41,7% had the nerve highly stained, 8,3% partially stained and 50% stained. There was no statistical significant difference between the groups in both the length and degree of dye impregnation by the nerve. A case of intravascular infiltration of the maxillary vessels and four cases of retrobulbar fat dye impregnation in BAPFPV group was observed. These complications were not seen in the BFIC group. According to the experimental conditions of this study it was concluded that both approaches reach the maxillary nerve in a similar manner, however, due to the promising results of BFIC technique and lower risks, we recommend clinical studies for its use in routine equestrian.

A anestesia do nervo maxilar no cavalo já foi descrita por diferentes autores usando várias aproximações, mas não existem muitos estudos que avaliaram sua eficácia e confiabilidade. Alguns autores consideram que dessensibilizar o nervo maxilar é difícil e pouco confiável devido a quadrantes mal definidos para a infiltração, enquanto que outros o tem descrito como potencialmente perigoso devido à proximidade com órbita e o risco de infecções. Uma alternativa seria o acesso ao nervo maxilar pelo forame infraorbitário utilizando um cateter, da mesma maneira como já realizado em cães, e com resultados bem-sucedidos. Sendo assim, o presente trabalho objetivou comparar o bloqueio do nervo maxilar pela fossa pterigopalatínica (BAPFPV) ou pelo forame infraorbitário com o uso de um cateter venoso (BFIC) em cavalos. Para tal, foram utilizadas 12 cabeças de cavalos adultos. Em cada lado da cabeça foram realizados um dos bloqueios propostos utilizando o corante azul de metileno para demarcar a área de abrangência do bloqueio. Todos os bloqueios foram realizados por veterinários sem experiência prévia. Os resultados foram avaliados mediante a dissecção dos nervos expostos ao longo do canal infraorbitário e até a fossa pterigopalatínica. Foram realizadas duas mensurações, uma determinando o comprimento (milímetros) de nervo corado com azul de metileno e a segunda avaliando o grau de impregnação do nervo pelo corante, sendo esta determinada como muito corada, parcialmente corada e não corada. O grupo BFIC apresentou média de 10,75 ± 8,08mm e o grupo BAPFPV 16,08 ± 17,22mm de impregnação do nervo maxilar pelo azul de metileno. Quanto ao grau de impregnação do nervo pelo corante, no grupo BFIC 33,3% apresentaram o nervo muito corado, 58,3% parcialmente corado e 8,3% não corado. Já no grupo BAPFPV, 41,7% apresentaram o nervo muito corado, 8,3% parcialmente corado e 50% não corado. Não foi verificada diferença estatisticamente significativa entre os grupos tanto no comprimento quanto no grau de impregnação do nervo pelo corante. Foi observado um caso de infiltração intravascular dos vasos maxilares e quatro casos de impregnação do corante na gordura retrobulbar no grupo BAPFPV. Não foram observadas essa outras complicações no grupo BFIC. De acordo com as condições experimentais deste estudo é possível concluir que as duas abordagens atingem o nervo maxilar de maneira similar, entretanto, em virtude dos resultados promissores da técnica BFIC e dos menores riscos, recomendamos a realização de estudos clínicos para a sua utilização na rotina equestre. / A number of authors using several approaches has described anaesthesia of the maxillary nerve of the horse, but it does not have many studies to evaluate its efficacy and reliability. Some authors consider desensitising the maxillary nerve to be difficult and unreliable due to poorly defined landmarks for injection, while others have also described it as potentially dangerous due to the proximity of the orbit and risk of infection. An alternative would be the approach to the nerve along the infraorbital foramen with a catheter, just as was done in dogs with successful results. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the maxillary nerve block by PTERYGOPALATINE FOSSA (BAPFPV) or the infraorbital foramen using a venous catheter (BFIC) in horses. For this purpose, were uses twelve adult horses heads. In each side of the head was carried one of the proposed blocks using the methylene blue dye to mark the area covered by the block. All blocks were performed by veterinarians without prior experience. The results were evaluated by the dissection of the exposed nerves along the infraorbital canal to the PTERYGOPALATINE FOSSA. Two measurements wre made, one determined the length (millimeters) of the nerve stained with methylene blue dye and the second evaluated the degree of impregnation by the nerve with the dye, and it was classified as highly stained, partially stained and unstained. The BFIC group presented an average of 10.75 ± 8,08mm and the BAPFPV group 16.08 ± 17,22mm of maxillary nerve impregnation by methylene blue dye. The degree of impregnation by the nerve with the dye, the BFIC group had 33,3% of the nerve highly stained, 58,3% partially stained and 8,3% unstained. At the BAPFPV group, 41,7% had the nerve highly stained, 8,3% partially stained and 50% stained. There was no statistical significant difference between the groups in both the length and degree of dye impregnation by the nerve. A case of intravascular infiltration of the maxillary vessels and four cases of retrobulbar fat dye impregnation in BAPFPV group was observed. These complications were not seen in the BFIC group. According to the experimental conditions of this study it was concluded that both approaches reach the maxillary nerve in a similar manner, however, due to the promising results of BFIC technique and lower risks, we recommend clinical studies for its use in routine equestrian.