A broader research project was conducted about intergenerational relationships. The focus of this study was about adolescents’ experiences of care in relationships with people older than 60 years, who live in an environment where resources are constrained. Care usually occurs in relationships and can take either the form of practical care or emotional care, or both which can occur simultaneously. Practical care involves behaviours, while emotional care involves feelings. Both are aimed at attending to other people’s needs. Previous studies on intergenerational relationships and care largely focused on either informal and practical care-giving, which are mainly provided by adult children to older people; or on the informal and practical care-giving provided by grandparents to grandchildren. Research on relational experiences between Setswana-speaking older people and young adults in South Africa has indicated ambivalence in their relationships. While another South African study on the relational experiences between Setswana-speaking older people and their grandchildren, who are in their middle childhood, reported supportive and caring relationships. Limited research exists about care in the relationships between adolescents and older people. Care as a relational phenomenon in intergenerational relationships is explained by the Self-Interactional Group Theory (SIGT), and is used in this study as the theoretical framework. SIGT explains the interactional manifestation of intergenerational relations, and conceptualises that intergenerational relationships are continuously created and co-created, which influences the meaning that is attached to care. This theory further explains the intra-individual, inter-individual and group level interactions that take place between the adolescents and older people. According to SIGT, intergenerational interactions are embedded in the socio-cultural, socio-economical, socio-political and the physical environments in which they take place. This study was conducted in Vaalharts, situated in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. This community is economically vulnerable and resources are constrained. A qualitative research method was used to describe adolescents’ experiences of care. Fourteen adolescents between the ages of 12 and 16 years participated in the research. Non-probability, purposive sampling was used to select the participants. The participants took part in the Mmogo-method ®, which is a visual participatory data gathering method, to elicit the experiences of care. Eight of the participants were part of the care-group, while the other six were part of the respect-group. All 14 participants received a journal with questions about care and respect to enlighten the data further. For this study, only the data about care was used. The Mmogo-method ® required the participants to build a visual presentation using clay, beads and sticks, about their experiences of care in relation to people older than 60 years. On completion, the rest of the participants were then asked to augment the individual’s explanation with their own views. The explanations were recorded and transcribed verbatim, while the visual representations were photographed and served as visual data. The data were analysed by the use of thematic and visual analysis. Trustworthiness was ensured by the use of credibility, dependability, transferability and conformability strategies. Additionally, the ethical guidelines provided by the Health Professions Council of South Africa for Psychologists were followed (Health Professions Act 56 of 1974). It was found that the adolescents were able to identify older people’s practical care and emotional care needs, and take action to provide them with appropriate care. The adolescents showed care in the form of practical activities, emotional support, showing respect, and obtaining an education. Findings further indicated that adolescents received care only in the form of practical care. These findings may be an indication that, from the adolescents’ perspective, there is an imbalance between the giving and receiving of practical and emotional care. Intervention programs can then focus on ways to help ensure that both practical and emotional care occurs in a more balanced manner. / MSc (Research Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

A broader research project was undertaken on experiences of care and respect within intergenerational relationships. The current study, which forms part of this project, focused more specifically on adolescents’ motivations for providing care to persons older than 60 years. Care is normally expressed in the interactions between people, and in this instance between generational members. In the African context, care between generational members is important because care is particularly provided in a social and familial context between generations and not necessarily by the government in terms of formal care services. Care, specifically for older persons has become a scarce commodity. In the light of different aspects like the growing older population, poverty, unemployment, and HIV/AIDS certain structural changes in families and between generations have come about. The changes influenced caregiving by delivering a larger number of dependant persons and a lack of capacity to provide care. Adolescents are important in the relationship with older persons, because often the relationship between persons from different generations, who find themselves in a deprived environment, is the only source for the provision of care. The findings of this study can possibly give an indication of how care in relation to older persons are being motivated in order to better plan for the care needs of older persons. The motivation for demonstrating care is particularly important because some motivation types are perceived to encourage more sustainable actions and caregiving than others. Currently intergenerational support and care are in short supply, suggesting the presence of less sustainable types of motivation. Care, in this study, refers to the satisfaction of social goals and psychological needs by means of tangible (instrumental/physical care) and intangible (emotional care) exchanges between intergenerational members. Intergenerational care encompasses upward and downward care. Upward care occurs when care is transferred from a younger generation to older persons, while downward care refers to care provided by older persons to younger people. Previous studies referred mostly to informal caregiving, downward care, or upward care provided by adult children. A limited number of studies exist of upward care provided by adolescents, specifically to persons older than 60, and research on younger people’s motivations for care is also rare. The theoretical framework that informs this study is Self-Determination Theory (SDT). This theory revolves around motivation, known as the force that compels one to act, or to conduct an activity such as care. SDT includes two broad categories of motivation types, namely autonomous and controlled motivations. The autonomous (self-determined) motivation category includes intrinsic motivation (i.e. conduct that stems from the inherently satisfying experience a particular activity offers), along with two well-internalized extrinsic motivation subtypes (namely identification and integrated regulation). Controlled motivation includes two more controlled and less internalized motivation subtypes (namely external and introjected regulation). Extrinsic motivation is when an activity is performed for a separate and external outcome. The different types of motivation consequently incorporate differing levels of self-determination to conduct certain activities. The more autonomous (self-determined) the motivation, the more sustainable actions of care. Adolescents are capable in terms of ego and cognitive development to be more self-determined and intrinsically motivated. Even though they may have the capacity to be more self-determined motivated, this is not always the case. Persons at this stage of psychosocial development according to Erikson’s lifespan approach focus more on peer relationships, and tend to conform to community expectations and social group norms. In such cases adolescents may experience motivations that include less self-determined motivation types, because they are controlled by external expectations and norms. Unfortunately less self-determined motivation types may also produce less sustainable care actions. A qualitative research method was applied to describe adolescents’ experiences of care in relation to older persons. In the findings, motivation for care was a major theme and it was therefore decided to focus only on this aspect in this study. The participants included 15 Setswana-speaking adolescents (seven boys and eight girls) between the ages of 12 and 16, who were selected by means of a nonprobability convenience sampling method. Data were collected in an economically vulnerable community where the participants lived, Vaalharts agricultural valley in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. This community is considered economically vulnerable because the majority of its members receive only irregular income and have to rely on meagre government grants to support multi-generational households. 15 Participants were included in the research; eight individuals participated in the Mmogo-method®, a projective visual data-gathering method, and all 15 participants completed self-reflective journal entries to supplement the data. During the Mmogo-method® session, participants were asked to build something that would show how they experienced care in relation to a person older than 60, using a lump of clay, grass stalks and beads. The self-reflective research journals included semi-structured questions to guide the participants. Descriptive phenomenological psychological, thematic, and visual analysis was employed to analyse the collected data. Credibility, dependability, transferability and conformability were applied to ensure the trustworthiness of the study. Moreover, ethical research conduct was ensured by applying the guidelines provided by the Department of Health for responsible and ethical research conduct in South Africa as well as the framework provided in Chapter 9 of the National Health Act 61 of 2003. Firstly a perceived absence of older persons in caring relationships emerged from the findings. The findings further revealed that the younger generation was moved by external stimuli such as observing struggling older persons or by obeying older persons’ explicit requests for help, to provide physical/instrumental care to older persons. In response to external stimuli adolescents were extrinsically motivated to care which was observed in obedience and perspective taking. The participants were also extrinsically motivated by feelings of obligation; to ensure older persons‟ happiness; from their submissive position in relation to older persons; and for returning care that were bestowed on them by the older persons. However, although the participants were extrinsically motivated to care, different levels of self-determination and self-choice seemed to be present in their behaviour. These findings provide a broader awareness with regard to adolescents’ motivations for care provision. The knowledge gained from this project could serve to inform intergenerational programmes designed to facilitate feelings of autonomy and emphasize gratitude as a motivator in intergenerational and interpersonal environments. / MA (Research Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Intergenerational relationships refer to relationships between people in alternate generational groups. The increasing numbers of older people all over the world highlight the need for studies on psychological processes that enhance well-being through intergenerational relationships. People from different generations are co-dependent for care and support. Older people constitute a diverse group: some may experience a depletion of energy, physical, financial and emotional resources, while others have good health, financial security and stable social support networks. What all people, including older people, have in common, however, is a need for meaningful relationships. This makes it worthwhile to explore the experiences of relationships with younger people from the perspective of older people. This study is important because research indicates that the relationships between older people (60 years and older) and adolescents and young adults are strained. An initial study on intergenerational care experiences from the perspective of people aged 60 years and older and young people in the middle-adolescent developmental phase (at 16 years) revealed a lack of empathy from the older generation towards the younger generation. It was decided to focus in this study on intergenerational empathy specifically. Mutual empathetic understanding is suggested as a means to overcome challenges between members of generations that have to compete for limited resources, especially in low-resource areas such as the specific rural African community studied in Vaalharts, South Africa. It is suggested that empathy could increase intergenerational understanding between older and younger people dealing with their respective developmental challenges. The research was conducted in a community with high levels of poverty and limited physical and material resources. The study is qualitative in nature and used an interpretive descriptive research design. This design provided the basis to explore the perceptions of empathy by using theoretical constructs to derive at an understanding of experiences in the community and specifically those of the older generation. The 18 participants were all older than 60 and Setswana speaking but were also proficient in Afrikaans and English. Eight of the participants (1 man and 7 women) participated in study using the Mmogo-method®. This is a projective technique that uses visual presentations to gain a deeper insight into meaning that is developed between the participants. For the Mmogo-method®, participants (older people) were invited to make visual representations of how they experienced care in relation to young people in the middle adolescent developmental phase, at around 16 years. A further 10 participants (4 men and 6 woman), who were not part of the Mmogo-method® project, participated in semi-structured interviews. These interviews provided them the freedom to elaborate on their own unique experiences. Semi- structured interviews also provide a certain amount of structure for the interviewer to make sure that detailed information on empathy in arising relevant conversations are obtained. Data were analysed using an inductive approach as well as thematic analysis of experiences about intergenerational care: empathy (and specifically, a lack of empathy) emerged as a recurrent theme. The literature shows a connection between empathy and care, which accordingly served as the focus of this study. The data were further subjected to a directed form of content analysis (deductive category application) which was conducted after literature and theory on intergenerational empathy have been consulted. A visual analysis was conducted on the visual presentations that the participants built as part of the Mmogo- method®. Trustworthiness was ensured by using the principles proposed by Guba’s model of trustworthiness and that include: obtaining thick descriptions, ensuring credibility, member checking and ensuring confirmabillity. Ethical consent to conduct this study was given by the Human Research Ethics committee of the Faculty of Health Sciences in the North-West University (reference number NWU-00053-10-S1). A gatekeeper was used to gain access to the community studied and participants gave their informed consent. The lack of empathy from the perspective or the older people emerged from the way in which older people viewed the relationship with the young solely from their own perspective and from their inability to place themselves in the position of the younger persons. Older people were at first unable to visualize the young in their caring relationships; they expressed negative and judgemental attitudes towards them and perceived that the young people are rejecting the wisdom of their elders. Older people resorted to outsiders to assist in communicating with and disciplining the young. The lack of empathy on the part of the older people for the young can have dire effects on their vital intergenerational relationships. It is recommended that community-based interventions be developed to promote empathy between the two generations. / MA (Research Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

A broader research project was conducted about intergenerational relationships. The focus of this study was about adolescents’ experiences of care in relationships with people older than 60 years, who live in an environment where resources are constrained. Care usually occurs in relationships and can take either the form of practical care or emotional care, or both which can occur simultaneously. Practical care involves behaviours, while emotional care involves feelings. Both are aimed at attending to other people’s needs. Previous studies on intergenerational relationships and care largely focused on either informal and practical care-giving, which are mainly provided by adult children to older people; or on the informal and practical care-giving provided by grandparents to grandchildren. Research on relational experiences between Setswana-speaking older people and young adults in South Africa has indicated ambivalence in their relationships. While another South African study on the relational experiences between Setswana-speaking older people and their grandchildren, who are in their middle childhood, reported supportive and caring relationships. Limited research exists about care in the relationships between adolescents and older people. Care as a relational phenomenon in intergenerational relationships is explained by the Self-Interactional Group Theory (SIGT), and is used in this study as the theoretical framework. SIGT explains the interactional manifestation of intergenerational relations, and conceptualises that intergenerational relationships are continuously created and co-created, which influences the meaning that is attached to care. This theory further explains the intra-individual, inter-individual and group level interactions that take place between the adolescents and older people. According to SIGT, intergenerational interactions are embedded in the socio-cultural, socio-economical, socio-political and the physical environments in which they take place. This study was conducted in Vaalharts, situated in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. This community is economically vulnerable and resources are constrained. A qualitative research method was used to describe adolescents’ experiences of care. Fourteen adolescents between the ages of 12 and 16 years participated in the research. Non-probability, purposive sampling was used to select the participants. The participants took part in the Mmogo-method ®, which is a visual participatory data gathering method, to elicit the experiences of care. Eight of the participants were part of the care-group, while the other six were part of the respect-group. All 14 participants received a journal with questions about care and respect to enlighten the data further. For this study, only the data about care was used. The Mmogo-method ® required the participants to build a visual presentation using clay, beads and sticks, about their experiences of care in relation to people older than 60 years. On completion, the rest of the participants were then asked to augment the individual’s explanation with their own views. The explanations were recorded and transcribed verbatim, while the visual representations were photographed and served as visual data. The data were analysed by the use of thematic and visual analysis. Trustworthiness was ensured by the use of credibility, dependability, transferability and conformability strategies. Additionally, the ethical guidelines provided by the Health Professions Council of South Africa for Psychologists were followed (Health Professions Act 56 of 1974). It was found that the adolescents were able to identify older people’s practical care and emotional care needs, and take action to provide them with appropriate care. The adolescents showed care in the form of practical activities, emotional support, showing respect, and obtaining an education. Findings further indicated that adolescents received care only in the form of practical care. These findings may be an indication that, from the adolescents’ perspective, there is an imbalance between the giving and receiving of practical and emotional care. Intervention programs can then focus on ways to help ensure that both practical and emotional care occurs in a more balanced manner. / MSc (Research Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

A broader research project was undertaken on experiences of care and respect within intergenerational relationships. The current study, which forms part of this project, focused more specifically on adolescents’ motivations for providing care to persons older than 60 years. Care is normally expressed in the interactions between people, and in this instance between generational members. In the African context, care between generational members is important because care is particularly provided in a social and familial context between generations and not necessarily by the government in terms of formal care services. Care, specifically for older persons has become a scarce commodity. In the light of different aspects like the growing older population, poverty, unemployment, and HIV/AIDS certain structural changes in families and between generations have come about. The changes influenced caregiving by delivering a larger number of dependant persons and a lack of capacity to provide care. Adolescents are important in the relationship with older persons, because often the relationship between persons from different generations, who find themselves in a deprived environment, is the only source for the provision of care. The findings of this study can possibly give an indication of how care in relation to older persons are being motivated in order to better plan for the care needs of older persons. The motivation for demonstrating care is particularly important because some motivation types are perceived to encourage more sustainable actions and caregiving than others. Currently intergenerational support and care are in short supply, suggesting the presence of less sustainable types of motivation. Care, in this study, refers to the satisfaction of social goals and psychological needs by means of tangible (instrumental/physical care) and intangible (emotional care) exchanges between intergenerational members. Intergenerational care encompasses upward and downward care. Upward care occurs when care is transferred from a younger generation to older persons, while downward care refers to care provided by older persons to younger people. Previous studies referred mostly to informal caregiving, downward care, or upward care provided by adult children. A limited number of studies exist of upward care provided by adolescents, specifically to persons older than 60, and research on younger people’s motivations for care is also rare. The theoretical framework that informs this study is Self-Determination Theory (SDT). This theory revolves around motivation, known as the force that compels one to act, or to conduct an activity such as care. SDT includes two broad categories of motivation types, namely autonomous and controlled motivations. The autonomous (self-determined) motivation category includes intrinsic motivation (i.e. conduct that stems from the inherently satisfying experience a particular activity offers), along with two well-internalized extrinsic motivation subtypes (namely identification and integrated regulation). Controlled motivation includes two more controlled and less internalized motivation subtypes (namely external and introjected regulation). Extrinsic motivation is when an activity is performed for a separate and external outcome. The different types of motivation consequently incorporate differing levels of self-determination to conduct certain activities. The more autonomous (self-determined) the motivation, the more sustainable actions of care. Adolescents are capable in terms of ego and cognitive development to be more self-determined and intrinsically motivated. Even though they may have the capacity to be more self-determined motivated, this is not always the case. Persons at this stage of psychosocial development according to Erikson’s lifespan approach focus more on peer relationships, and tend to conform to community expectations and social group norms. In such cases adolescents may experience motivations that include less self-determined motivation types, because they are controlled by external expectations and norms. Unfortunately less self-determined motivation types may also produce less sustainable care actions. A qualitative research method was applied to describe adolescents’ experiences of care in relation to older persons. In the findings, motivation for care was a major theme and it was therefore decided to focus only on this aspect in this study. The participants included 15 Setswana-speaking adolescents (seven boys and eight girls) between the ages of 12 and 16, who were selected by means of a nonprobability convenience sampling method. Data were collected in an economically vulnerable community where the participants lived, Vaalharts agricultural valley in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. This community is considered economically vulnerable because the majority of its members receive only irregular income and have to rely on meagre government grants to support multi-generational households. 15 Participants were included in the research; eight individuals participated in the Mmogo-method®, a projective visual data-gathering method, and all 15 participants completed self-reflective journal entries to supplement the data. During the Mmogo-method® session, participants were asked to build something that would show how they experienced care in relation to a person older than 60, using a lump of clay, grass stalks and beads. The self-reflective research journals included semi-structured questions to guide the participants. Descriptive phenomenological psychological, thematic, and visual analysis was employed to analyse the collected data. Credibility, dependability, transferability and conformability were applied to ensure the trustworthiness of the study. Moreover, ethical research conduct was ensured by applying the guidelines provided by the Department of Health for responsible and ethical research conduct in South Africa as well as the framework provided in Chapter 9 of the National Health Act 61 of 2003. Firstly a perceived absence of older persons in caring relationships emerged from the findings. The findings further revealed that the younger generation was moved by external stimuli such as observing struggling older persons or by obeying older persons’ explicit requests for help, to provide physical/instrumental care to older persons. In response to external stimuli adolescents were extrinsically motivated to care which was observed in obedience and perspective taking. The participants were also extrinsically motivated by feelings of obligation; to ensure older persons‟ happiness; from their submissive position in relation to older persons; and for returning care that were bestowed on them by the older persons. However, although the participants were extrinsically motivated to care, different levels of self-determination and self-choice seemed to be present in their behaviour. These findings provide a broader awareness with regard to adolescents’ motivations for care provision. The knowledge gained from this project could serve to inform intergenerational programmes designed to facilitate feelings of autonomy and emphasize gratitude as a motivator in intergenerational and interpersonal environments. / MA (Research Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Intergenerational relationships refer to relationships between people in alternate generational groups. The increasing numbers of older people all over the world highlight the need for studies on psychological processes that enhance well-being through intergenerational relationships. People from different generations are co-dependent for care and support. Older people constitute a diverse group: some may experience a depletion of energy, physical, financial and emotional resources, while others have good health, financial security and stable social support networks. What all people, including older people, have in common, however, is a need for meaningful relationships. This makes it worthwhile to explore the experiences of relationships with younger people from the perspective of older people. This study is important because research indicates that the relationships between older people (60 years and older) and adolescents and young adults are strained. An initial study on intergenerational care experiences from the perspective of people aged 60 years and older and young people in the middle-adolescent developmental phase (at 16 years) revealed a lack of empathy from the older generation towards the younger generation. It was decided to focus in this study on intergenerational empathy specifically. Mutual empathetic understanding is suggested as a means to overcome challenges between members of generations that have to compete for limited resources, especially in low-resource areas such as the specific rural African community studied in Vaalharts, South Africa. It is suggested that empathy could increase intergenerational understanding between older and younger people dealing with their respective developmental challenges. The research was conducted in a community with high levels of poverty and limited physical and material resources. The study is qualitative in nature and used an interpretive descriptive research design. This design provided the basis to explore the perceptions of empathy by using theoretical constructs to derive at an understanding of experiences in the community and specifically those of the older generation. The 18 participants were all older than 60 and Setswana speaking but were also proficient in Afrikaans and English. Eight of the participants (1 man and 7 women) participated in study using the Mmogo-method®. This is a projective technique that uses visual presentations to gain a deeper insight into meaning that is developed between the participants. For the Mmogo-method®, participants (older people) were invited to make visual representations of how they experienced care in relation to young people in the middle adolescent developmental phase, at around 16 years. A further 10 participants (4 men and 6 woman), who were not part of the Mmogo-method® project, participated in semi-structured interviews. These interviews provided them the freedom to elaborate on their own unique experiences. Semi- structured interviews also provide a certain amount of structure for the interviewer to make sure that detailed information on empathy in arising relevant conversations are obtained. Data were analysed using an inductive approach as well as thematic analysis of experiences about intergenerational care: empathy (and specifically, a lack of empathy) emerged as a recurrent theme. The literature shows a connection between empathy and care, which accordingly served as the focus of this study. The data were further subjected to a directed form of content analysis (deductive category application) which was conducted after literature and theory on intergenerational empathy have been consulted. A visual analysis was conducted on the visual presentations that the participants built as part of the Mmogo- method®. Trustworthiness was ensured by using the principles proposed by Guba’s model of trustworthiness and that include: obtaining thick descriptions, ensuring credibility, member checking and ensuring confirmabillity. Ethical consent to conduct this study was given by the Human Research Ethics committee of the Faculty of Health Sciences in the North-West University (reference number NWU-00053-10-S1). A gatekeeper was used to gain access to the community studied and participants gave their informed consent. The lack of empathy from the perspective or the older people emerged from the way in which older people viewed the relationship with the young solely from their own perspective and from their inability to place themselves in the position of the younger persons. Older people were at first unable to visualize the young in their caring relationships; they expressed negative and judgemental attitudes towards them and perceived that the young people are rejecting the wisdom of their elders. Older people resorted to outsiders to assist in communicating with and disciplining the young. The lack of empathy on the part of the older people for the young can have dire effects on their vital intergenerational relationships. It is recommended that community-based interventions be developed to promote empathy between the two generations. / MA (Research Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

China is entering a new historical era that has as its demographic hallmark an ageing population. The fact that China is ageing before it becomes a modernised, wealthy country, presents serious challenges, one of the most direct and important of which relates to support for older members of society. This thesis concerns the way in which different factors affect intergenerational transfers from adult children to their old parents, with particular focus on living arrangements and parental income. The core question this thesis aims to address is: If public transfers increase, would this crowd out private transfers? The results of the estimated association between living arrangements and intergenerational transfers are also used to improve the robustness of the test of crowding-out effect. This study is based on empirical analyses of two waves of nationally representative datasets, covering adult individuals aged 60 and over from 20 provinces in urban and rural China. Living arrangements are vital to intergenerational transfers and welfare in old age, especially in China where the family-based support mechanism by which the young cared for the old was traditionally through coresidence. The descriptive statistics show that though coresidence is still the predominant living arrangement in rural areas, older Chinese people are increasingly less likely to co-reside with children. Such changes in living arrangements, however, do not leave older people isolated over time. Investigation of the determinants of older people’s coresidence decisions shows that older people with more financial or instrumental needs are more likely to live with children. Analysis of the determinants of parents’ living distance from children finds that in urban areas, old parents with higher pensions are more likely to live far away from children, although insignificant effects are found for rural samples. Finally, this study finds weak evidence that parents living far from children receive more intergenerational transfers. Overall, it has been found that family support, including intergenerational monetary transfers, is still prevalent in China; particularly in rural areas. Although a pattern of declining intergenerational transfers began to emerge during the period between 2000 and 2006, the family unit, and traditional family support, appear likely to remain an essential pillar of security in old age. Through the use of a variety of quantitative methodologies this thesis is able to provide robust estimates of how the increase in public programmes is influencing private transfers in China. Analysis of the factors that determine the incidence of receipt of transfers from children suggests that intergenerational transfers in China tend to target old parents that are in greater financial need. Moreover, the analysis of determinants of the size of transfer suggests that although altruism and exchange motives co-exist, the exchange motive dominates inter-generational transfers in urban China. This study does not find statistically significant estimates of transfer derivatives for older people in rural areas. The emerging pattern of support for older people indicates the pursuit of a new balance between formal and informal support. This thesis argues that a gradual increase in public transfers will not crowd out private transfers, and, in cities, may actually strengthen private transfers.

In the past, Chinese normative values deprived daughters of education, choice and autonomy, relegating them to a dependent domestic role within a rigid family hierarchy. This is no longer the norm. Today, Chinese daughters are widely educated and many are working outside the home, becoming financial assets to their families. Despite this, gendered expectations concerning filial obligation have not abated, and perhaps surprisingly given their modern lifestyles and financial contributions, Chinese daughters continue to accept this responsibility, including caregiving for ageing parents. The aim of this thesis is to explore the nature of the current caregiving paradigm between Chinese daughters, their parents and parents-in-law. It seeks to understand why Chinese daughters continue to undertake filial obligation when they are no longer dependent on the family; how they manage the practical discharge of filial obligation; and the ways in which traditional filial obligation have shifted. In furtherance of this exploration, in 2011 and 2012, 58 Chinese women and 6 Filipina domestic helpers were interviewed in Hong Kong and Singapore. Thematic analysis was performed on the transcribed data. Symbolic interactionism, caregiving motivation models, and Hochschild's (1983) theory of emotion management provided the conceptual and theoretical framework for the research. Drawing from the data, a support and care typology was developed reflecting the varying levels of daughters' filial support and their motivations for providing this support. Among these respondents, the core belief in "duty" has not fundamentally changed from that of their parents' generation. However, feelings of affection and gratitude, the strength of traditional or contemporary norms, and one’s self-image together with emotion work, moderated the duration and quality of care daughters were willing to provide. These factors may also determine whether caregiving is outsourced to foreign domestic helpers, or whether parents and in-laws are placed in nursing homes, and the nature of care provided thereafter.

Intergenerational relationships in contemporary society Abstract The diploma thesis deals with the theme of intergenerational relationships, particularly focusing on ageism. This theme was chosen for the present social development and also because of its relevance. Intergenerational relations are becoming an important element of everyday life and thus have an impact on the lives of individuals and theirs families. Demographic indicators have a big influence for ageism and their analysis will also be part of the work. The work will include both parts, theoretical part, which will be familiar with the problems of intergenerational communication and conflict resolution and discuss the literature dealing with this issue, as well as empirical part, based mainly on secondary data analysis of sociological research. All calculations are performed by the SPSS software. Keywords: Intergenerational Relationships, Ageism, Aging, Society, Individual, Generation, SPSS

This thesis investigates in what ways the family matters for educational outcomes. Six research questions are answered. First, is family size associated with familial resources? Second, is having a large family associated with lower levels of objective and subjective educational outcomes and has this changed over the 20th century? Third, is there evidence of an association between family size and emotional health and life perspectives of young people? Fourth, is there any evidence of an association between family size and the degree of confidence and sociability? Fifth, do parenting strategies vary by family size? Sixth, is there evidence if a causal relationship between family size and educational outcomes? The British Household Panel Survey, the Longitudinal Survey of Young People in England and the ONS Longitudinal Study are used to answer these questions. The key findings from the observational studies are as follows. First, as family size increases there is a reduction in familial resources. Second, as a result of resource dilution there is a reduction in the highest qualification attained; this finding is robust to alternative measures of educational outcomes. Third, there is a positive relationship between family size and reporting poor emotional health and external locus of control. Fourth, there is some evidence that the manner in which the young person socialises varies by family size. Fifth, parenting strategies vary by family size; these strategies are positively associated with GCSE achievement and ameliorate the negative family size association. Sixth, testing the resource dilution model using twins as an exogenous increase in family size found that there is weak evidence of a causal relationship between family size and educational outcomes. This thesis addresses the influence of the family on inequalities in education. The findings have important implications for future research on this topic.