The hygrothermal analysis of building envelopes plays a crucial role in the renovation strategies for historical buildings. Dynamical hygrothermal simulations under realistic conditions are effective in predicting moisture-related damages, including the risk of mold growth or frost damage, which can arise when combining historical walls with modern insulation systems. However, accurately modeling and simulating historic walls, composed of brick/stone and mortar joints, using detailed two- or three-dimensional models, is a complex and time-consuming task. As a result, a common practice in hygrothermal simulations is to simplify old masonry into a one-dimensional layer of stone/brick, disregarding mortar joints. Nonetheless, in this study cases were identified where this simplification approach leads to unacceptable inaccuracies, particularly when historic masonry is combined with vapor-tight insulation systems. Also, this study investigated the influence of the internal geometry of mortar joints and the stone/mortar ratio in hygrothermal simulations. While the internal disposition of joints showed minimal influence, the stone/mortar ratio was found to play a significant role. In light of these findings, this thesis proposes a method to replace the complex representation of historical masonry with a fictitious homogenized porous material that incorporates the influence of mortar joints. The hygrothermal properties of this newly developed ‘Homogenized Porous Material’ are averaged and optimized to closely approximate the behavior of the hygrothermal model for important applications. The proposed method was applied to various combinations of mortars, stones, and bricks. Furthermore, the behavior of the ‘Homogenized Porous Material’ was evaluated under dynamic conditions, specifically for the case of an internally insulated wall in different climates. A comparison was made with a two-dimensional fully described model to assess the performance of the developed method. The results demonstrate considerable improvements compared to the conventional one-dimensional stone/brick layer approximation, with the degree of improvement being more pronounced when the hygrothermal properties of the stone/brick and mortar differ significantly. The developed method offers significant advantages: for example, the application to 3D building energy simulation tools which entangle moisture balances, allows for quick pre-checks for moisture damage. This can help pre-assessing the potential risks of moisture-related issues in a time-efficient manner also at building component level. Moreover, in time-critical studies where a large number of variant analyses are required, 1D models remain essential as they allow for efficient sensitivity analyses with a large number of simulations runs. This method facilitates a comprehensive exploration of different scenarios and parameter variations, aiding in the identification of critical factors affecting the hygrothermal performance of historic walls. Furthermore, the developed method has potential applications in situations where the inner structure of walls is unknown, such as forensic analysis of historical constructions. By providing a reliable and simplified representation of the hygrothermal behavior, this method can support investigations and assessments of moisture-related issues in historical buildings, even when detailed knowledge of the internal structure is limited. In conclusion, this research can offer to architects and engineers practical benefits in terms of accurate prediction of moisture-related damages, efficient pre-checks, sensitivity analyses, and applications in cases with limited knowledge of wall structures. In future, an extended database of ‘Homogenized Porous Materials’, suitable to model masonry walls, can be built for the users.:Preface Abstract Kurzfassung Table of Contents Chapter 1 - Introduction and overview 1.1 Motivation 1.2 Problem statement 1.3 Thesis 1.4 Solution strategy and methodology 1.5 Structure of the study Chapter 2 - Literature background 2.1 General concepts concerning historical masonry 2.2 Theory and tool for hygrothermal simulations 2.2.1 Balance equation of energy and mass for the porous medium 2.2.2 Flux of energy and mass for the porous medium 2.2.3 Climate and boundary conditions Incident wind-driven rain Radiation, short-wave and long-wave Interior climate 2.3 Main hygrothermal properties of materials and experimental measurement procedures 2.3.1 Bulk density and porosity: helium pycnometer 2.3.2 Specific heat capacity: calorimeter 2.3.3 Thermal conductivity: the hot plate measurement 2.3.4 Vapour conductivity: the cup-tests 2.3.5 Moisture storage function: desiccator method and pressure plates 2.3.6 Liquid conductivity: water uptake and drying experiment 2.3.7 Vapor and liquid conductivity function: capillary condensation redistribution test (CCR) 2.4 Complexity and simplification for the hygrothermal modeling and simulation of historical masonry Chapter 3 - Quantifying the Impact of Mortar Joints in Hygrothermal Simulations of Historical Masonry 3.1 Investigation through dynamical hygrothermal simulation in realistic condition 3.2 Evidence of mortar joints’ impact in hygrothermal simulations of historic walls 3.3 Dependence of the hygrothermal transport of a masonry wall on its internal geometry 3.4 Discrepancies due to assumptions on stone/mortar ratio 3.5 The case of a three-dimensional simulation Chapter 4 - A fictitious ‘Homogenized Porous Material’ (HPM) to describe heat and moisture transport in a massive historic wall 4.1 Definition of the preliminary activities: choice of the reference model and of the materials 4.2 Homogenized porous material characterization 4.2.1 Phase 1: hygrothermal properties through analytical calculation Bulk density, ρ Porosity, θpor Specific heat capacity, Cp Moisture storage function, θl,HPMpc 4.2.2 Phase 2: hygrothermal properties through numerical experiment Dry Thermal conductivity, λdry Thermal conductivity function, λ(θl) Dry water vapour resistance factor, μdry Water vapour conductivity function, Kv(θl) 4.2.3 Phase 3: hygrothermal properties through optimization algorithm 4.3 Conclusions on the developed method Chapter 5 - Application of the ‘Homogenized Porous Material’ (HPM) method 5.1 Preliminary activities and reading instructions 5.2 Homogenized Porous Material characterizations in three phases 5.3 Dynamical hygrothermal simulation in realistic condition with Homogenized Porous Materials 5.3.1 Simulations set-up 5.3.2 Analyzed Output 5.3.3 Result of the simulation in realistic design condition with Interior Insulation 5.4 Discussion on the obtained results 5.4.1 Discussion on HPM calibration results 5.4.2 Discussion on HPM dynamical hygrothermal simulation in realistic condition 5.5 Conclusions on the tests Chapter 6 - Summary, conclusions and outlooks 6.1 Content summary 6.2 Achievements and conclusions 6.3 Future prospects Appendix I List of Figures (Appendix I) List of Tables (Appendix I) Appendix II List of Figures (Appendix II) Appendix III List of figure (Appendix III) List of Tables (Appendix III) List of Abbreviations and Symbols List of Figures List of Tables Acknowledgements Bibliography

The aim is to examine the possibility of increasing surface standard with varying intensity interventions and proposals for improvement of the technical condition of the building. Suggest three basic variants of reconstruction A, B, C according to the type, shape and position of the staircase. For a detailed elaboration select one variant - C2. Designing the two approaches to improve the technical condition of the building and internal microclimate - internal and external insulation. Both approaches are compared and evaluated their pros and cons.

Das Projekt OEKO-ID hat zum Ziel. problematische Bauteilanschlüsse, insbesondere Balkenköpfe von Holzdecken, im Zusammenhang mit "ökologischen" Innendämmsystemen messtechnisch zu untersuchen. Des Weiteren sollen Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der hygrothermischen Simulation aufgezeigt werden. Ferner wurde eine neue Methode molekularbiologischer und baubiologischer Untersuchungen, hier zur Detektierung von Schimmelpilzen, entwickelt und optimiert.

Das Projekt OEKO-ID hat zum Ziel. problematische Bauteilanschlüsse, insbesondere Balkenköpfe von Holzdecken, im Zusammenhang mit "ökologischen" Innendämmsystemen messtechnisch zu untersuchen. Des Weiteren sollen Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der hygrothermischen Simulation aufgezeigt werden. Ferner wurde eine neue Methode molekularbiologischer und baubiologischer Untersuchungen, hier zur Detektierung von Schimmelpilzen, entwickelt und optimiert.:Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Technisch-wissenschaftliche Beschreibung der Arbeit 4 1.1 Projektabriss 4 2 Testhaus und energetische Sanierung 6 2.1 Literaturrecherche 6 2.2 Auswahl der Dämmsysteme 7 2.3 Planung Versuchsgebäude 8 2.4 Adaptierung Versuchsgebäude 8 2.5 Vorbereitende Arbeiten 2.7 Montage der Dämmsysteme 14 2.8 Baupraktische Erfahrungen im Spiegel des WTA-Merkblatts E-8-14 18 2.9 Beschreibung der verwendeten Dämmsysteme 20 2.10 Bewertung der verwendeten Dämmstoffe bezüglich der Verarbeitung 26 2.11 Vergleich der Dämmsysteme bezüglich OI3- Index 29 2.12 Erfahrungen beim Rückbau und der Entsorgung 31 2.13 Zusammenfassung der Eigenschaften der Dämmsysteme 39 2.14 Reduzierung der Transmissionswärmeverluste durch Innendämmmaßnahmen 41 3 Hygrothermische Materialkennwerte und -funktionen 43 3.1 Materialuntersuchungen 43 3.2 Beprobung . 44 3.3 Messverfahren 45 3.4 Verifizierungsexperimente: kontinuierliche Wasseraufnahme und Abtrocknung 52 3.5 Erstellung von Materialfunktionen 53 3.6 Zusammenfassung der Eigenschaften der Materialien und Innendämmsysteme 62 4 Mikrobiologische Untersuchungen und Methodenentwicklung 67 4.1 Vorgehen 67 4.2 Ergebnisse 75 5 Hygrothermische Vor-Ort-Messungen 81 5.1 Auswertung der Messdaten 81 5.2 Außen- und Raumklima 82 5.3 Temperatur und Luftfeuchte auf der Bestandsoberfläche 94 5.4 Temperatur und Luftfeuchte in der Mitte der Balkentasche 105 5.5 Temperatur und Luftfeuchte vor dem Stirnholz 109 5.6 Holzfeuchtemessungen 115 5.7 Oberflächentemperaturen 121 5.8 Temperatur- und Feuchteprofile an den Balken 125 5.9 Abdichtung der Balkenauflagertaschen 140 5.10 Mögliches Schimmelpilzwachstum in den Balkenauflagern 147 5.11 Konvertieren und Auswerten der Messungen 149 5.12 Resümee der hygrothermischen Messungen 149 6 Hygrothermische Simulationen 152 6 Hygrothermische Simulationen 152 6.1 Verwendete Simulationsprogramme 152 6.2 Temperatur-Korrektur der Holzfeuchtesensoren 154 6.3 Einfluss von Schlagregen 158 6.4 Berücksichtigung der Permeabilität der Baumaterialien 162 6.5 Simulation der Messergebnisse 166 6.6 Simulation der Grenzschicht Dämmsystem/ Bestandskonstruktion 168 6.7 Simulation eines Balkenkopfs 170 7 Dissemination - Darstellung der Verbreitungs- und Verwertungsmaßnahmen 174 7.1 Workshops 174 7.2 Zusammenarbeit mit anderen Projekten 175 7.3 Vorträge auf (Fach-)Tagungen und Konferenzen 175 7.4 Publikationen 178 8 Zusammenfassung 180 8.1 Technologische und ökologische Bewertung der Dämmsysteme 180 8.2 Bestimmung der Materialeigenschaften 181 8.3 Mikrobiologische Untersuchungen und Methodenentwicklung 181 8.4 Hygrothermische Vorortmessungen182 8.5 Hygrothermische Simulationen 183 8.6 Dissemination 184 9 Literaturverzeichnis 185 10 Unterschrift 192 A1 Anhang zum Abschnitt 2 Versuchsaufbau 193 A2 Anhang zum Abschnitt 4 - Mikrobiologische Untersuchungen 194 A3 Abdruck der Publikationen in internationalen wissenschaftlichen Zeitschriften 208 A4 Bauteilkatalog 230 A5 Monatliche Klima-Durchschnittswerte 247

Concilier patrimoine et amélioration de la performance énergétique du bâti ancien est un défi pour de nombreux centres historiques. La Communauté d’Agglomération du Grand Cahors, qui finance ce travail de thèse à travers une convention CIFRE, a souhaité s’attaquer à cette problématique en valorisant des isolants bio-sourcés. Le choix du matériau et du système d’isolation sont essentiels car ils influencent à la fois la performance hygrothermique de la paroi, la qualité de l’air intérieur, le coût et l’empreinte carbone de la rénovation. Dans cette étude, nous nous sommes focalisé sur la performance hygrothermique de la paroi afin d’assurer que la mise en place d’une isolation par l’intérieur ne soit pas source de dégradations futures de la paroi. Pour cela, nous avons confronté différents outils et méthodes tels que la caractérisation physique des matériaux, une instrumentation in-situ dans deux appartements du centre ancien de Cahors et des simulations hygrothermiques alliant différents outils numériques. / Improving the energy efficiency of buildings is essential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate against climate change. Historic dwellings represent a large part of the French building stock that needs to be refurbished. In the city center of Cahors, France, the old medieval dwellings are considered as valuable cultural heritage and internal insulation is often the only insulation technique that can be used when the architectural value of the exterior façade is to be preserved. This PhD thesis, funded by a CIFRE agreement with the Communauté d’Agglomération du Grand Cahors, studied the suitability of bio-based materials for the internal insulation of historical dwellings in urban area. The selection of the insulation material and the system is crucial because of its impact on the hygrothermal performance of the wall, the indoor air quality, the financial cost, and the carbon footprint of the refurbishment solution. In this study we focused on the hygrothermal performance of the walls to provide a reliable risk assessment in order to avoid hygrothermal failure. Due to the complexity of the problem and the lack of needed data, we ran a multi-scale study including both experimental (laboratory characterisation and building monitoring) and numerical modelling methods.