The initial hypothesis of this dissertation was that Afghan insurgents' attacks on Afghan civilians have lowered popular confidence in the Afghan government and its institutions. The goal of the insurgents has been to convince Afghans that their local, provincial, and national governments and security forces cannot protect them. Insurgents harm and kill civilians as part of their strategy of intimidation. Conversely, counterinsurgents try to convince the Afghan people that their government is responsive, that the economy is promising, that the rule of law is strong, and that Armed Forces of Afghanistan are viable. For the counterinsurgency to have been successful, the level of national confidence would need to have been high. National confidence is intangible, often fleeting, and sometimes difficult to gauge. There are standard measurements of human development, such as economic growth; longevity; access to medicine and health clinics, levels of literacy, potable water, security, and others. However, measuring confidence presents unique challenges for the researcher. The Taliban were, by far, the most powerful and largest of the insurgent groups, but there were others. The strategy of the insurgents to break confidence in the Afghan local, provincial and national governments was based on three basic principles: crippling the economy, terrorizing their domestic enemies; and destroying the will of foreign states to continue their support for Kabul. All these tactics were predicated on violence. In this dissertation, quantitative methods associated the impact of violent incidents, which were the independent variables, to various indicators of national morale, which are the dependent variables. The results confirmed some elements of the hypothesis and disproved others. Several components of national confidence declined from 2008 and 2010, but only marginally. For the scales that were measured, there was a decline of national confidence in four scales, but an increase in one scale. There were decreases in the confidence of economic prosperity in villages and neighborhoods where citizens live, and a decline in the confidence of citizens in national and provincial governments. In security, there was a very slight decline. However, there was an increase in the confidence of citizens in institutions, organizations, and officials. The findings suggest that the overarching counterinsurgency strategy of building national confidence through sustained human development was successful in the years analyzed in this dissertation. Despite a spike in insurgent attacks during 2009, national confidence in 2010 was not significantly eroded. The author of this dissertation is a military analyst for the Department of Defense. All material in this work - its observations, conclusions, recommendations, and opinions - are those of the author and his alone. No element of this dissertation, officially or unofficially, reflects the policy of the Department of Defense or any element or agency of the United States government. / acase@tulane.edu

Excessive PM2.5 emissions in China threaten peoples’ health and cause massive economic burdens to society. Under pressure from the public, and the international community, China published PM2.5 standards for the first time in March 2012. Following the introduction of standards, several pilot cities began to build PM2.5 monitoring networks. This paper is designed to explore whether PM2.5 monitoring can be effectively undertaken and implemented in China and whether monitoring results can offer a technical basis to facilitate a significant reduction in actual PM2.5 emissions and protect public health. PM2.5 monitoring is essential in helping the government and public monitor pollution levels and supervise local compliance with PM2.5 standards. Key aspects to facilitate an effective monitoring process are discussed in the analysis. In addition, a case study – Lanzhou’s PM2.5 monitoring network – is provided to analyze and improve current PM2.5 monitoring practices at local levels, as well as suggest credible technical support to local authorities so as to cut PM2.5 emissions levels. Based on detailed analysis, the results suggest that PM2.5 monitoring can be successfully implemented in China by following several key principles – designing a representative PM2.5 monitoring network, applying QA/QC to ensure data quality, interpreting the data scientifically to understand real pollution levels, etc. In addition, this paper recommends three measures critical to realizing PM2.5 reduction goals: (1) emissions source control, (2) public participation to add input to the decision-making process and supervise local compliance with PM2.5 standards, and (3) non-governmental organization/international cooperation to improve local government and environmental agencies’ capacity with regards to environmental protection. Lessons derived from the case study can help improve PM2.5 monitoring performance not just in Lanzhou, but in cities that share similar monitoring issues across China. Scientific monitoring, together with the application of the above three measures, can more effectively curb PM2.5 emissions, improve air quality, and mitigate negative health effects associated with air pollution. / acase@tulane.edu

While immigration detention and the use of detention transfers are necessary components of the US immigration enforcement system, there are several human rights principles that may be violated during detention and deportation processes. This study highlights the utility of record linkage methodologies of data analysis in illuminating the reality of immigration enforcement for millions of non-citizens and developing evidence of potential rights violations. It is hoped that this study provides a direction and exemplifies a course of action for how ICE data can be explored to produce a greater understanding of the realities of US immigration enforcement practices US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) frequently releases immigration enforcement data to researchers via Freedom of Information Act requests. These datasets often contain unique variables attributable to the same detainees or may contain detention actions absent of the identification variables necessary to group actions to individual detainees. This report demonstrates the utility of record linkage in analyzing such datasets. It examines linked records through a human rights lens and provides quantitative estimates of several potential human rights violations Intra-system record linkage was used to successfully link over 95 percent of records in an ICE database of 5,061,411 detention actions. The methodology supplies data on detention transfers by determining who was transferred where, thus providing aggregate evidence of detentions transfers which arguably violate several human rights principles concerning the right to defend against deportation Inter-system record linkage was utilized to successfully match 33 percent of the records from a second database to corresponding records in the main database, thus increasing the number of variables per matched individual as well as ascertaining the immigration outcomes of matched detainees. I utilize the crime variable gained via record linkage, along with detention facility variables, to provide additional evidence of immigration detention potentially violating the principle of proportionality in sentencing / acase@tulane.edu

This study is based on the assumption that seasonal influenza in tropical region correlates with climatic, geographical, and socio-economic factors. There are very few studies addressing seasonality and geographical distribution of influenza epidemic in Thailand, not to mention, study on association between influenza incidence and its contributing factors. The main objectives of this study are to 1) identify seasonality, spatial dependency, and spatiotemporal correlation of seasonal influenza in Thailand, 2) identify climatic, geographical, and socio-economic factors associated with influenza incidence in Thailand, and 3) develop comprehensive prediction models of influenza incidence in Thailand. The results of the study suggest that there is obvious seasonal pattern of influenza incidence in Thailand. The peak of the epidemic occurs in rainy season (June-July). The bottom of the epidemic happens in the middle of summer (April) and in winter (December). ArcGIS, geographical information system software, was used in this study to identify spatial dependency. The epidemic displays spatial dependency as there were 127 districts out of 928 districts having significantly higher incidence of influenza than neighboring districts, while 21 districts showing significantly lower incidence than neighboring districts. Rainfall, temperature, humidity, altitude, population, and household incomes showed significant correlations with influenza incidence in Thailand. Population is the most important contributing factor. However, correlations of all factors are weak to very weak. A GWR model was developed to predict influenza incidence. The variables included in the model are accumulated rainfall, and district population. The correlation coefficient of the model was 0.369. And a series of GWR models for each month of the year were also developed. The correlation coefficients of the models suggested that the monthly GWR models predict the incidence better than the general GWR model only in the months with high incidence of influenza (June-August). According to the finding of this study, we know that when and where influenza vaccination should be provide in order to control annual spread of seasonal influenza in Thailand. Although, the GWR model developed in this study is not a good prediction model, but it provides common ground for further study on seasonal influenza in Thailand and the region. / acase@tulane.edu

acase@tulane.edu

This thesis examines how gender influences the perceptions of men and women toward different social, economic and political issues in Liberia's post-conflict reconstruction process. While the focus of the thesis is women, a gender framework is utilized and considers the situation of men to have a more comprehensive perspective on sustainable peace and reconstruction in post-conflict Liberia. Previous research has demonstrated that the condition of women and gender inequality must be accurately understood and addressed to ensure sustainable and equitable reconstruction in post-conflict societies. This dissertation seeks to answer the following research questions: To what degree do women perceive the post-conflict reconstruction process differently than do men, and what is the nature of such differences? And, to what degree have women's issues been incorporated in public discourse and reconstruction policy? This study seeks an in-depth understanding of how ideas about women's and men's social participation and responsibilities may be evolving in a time of social reordering and how such changes may shape efforts to positively influence socio-political processes and ultimately, long-term peace. This dissertation examines the actions taken by the reconstruction government to consider the effects of gender on policy and design policy accordingly, in an effort to eliminate gender-based inequalities. Using a country case study methodology, focus groups and key informant interviews were conducted in rural and urban Liberia. Focus groups stratified by ethnicity, gender, urban/rural residence and age were used to help determine how women and men and differing groups of Liberians view and discuss the post-conflict reconstruction process and the different socio-economic issues associated with this process; and what the differences and similarities in these experiences indicate for the success of the reconstruction process as a whole. The findings of this dissertation suggest that this initial post-conflict period has been instrumental to the restructuring of gender roles. Participants perceived that women have entered the political spectrum with a gender-balanced agenda that attempts to correct gender inequalities, although women and men have differing perceptions of the benefit of such agenda. Both men and women perceived that education is being used as a tool for addressing gender inequality and that gender roles in Liberia are changing in part to violent conflict. The information generated by this study will make a useful contribution to the effectiveness of policies and strategies of sustainable peace and reconstruction of Liberia, the West African region and post-conflict societies as a whole / acase@tulane.edu

Donor-accountability demands have increased the importance of indicator-based Monitoring and Evaluation (M & E) for official development assistance (ODA). This unremitting pressure for aid- recipient countries to produce indicators and for donors to judge the success of aid exclusively by indicators is well documented by development scholars and practitioners. The research for this dissertation examined how this pressure reffered to as "indicatorism" influenced and was influenced by the implementation of donor development aid. The donor-funded Kenya Education Sector Support Program (KESSP) served as a case study to address this issue. It investigated the factors that formed "indicatorism" for KESSP; the actual production of indicators for KESSP; the influence of the politics of development aid on M & E; and whether Geographic Information (GI) served as an alternative to indicators in the M & E process. The case study used an archival review of KESSP documentation, detailed observation of KESSP project sites, focus group discussions with KESSP stakeholders at four field sites in Kenya, interviews with donor and government officials, an analysis of KESSP indicators, and an analysis of KESSP's school mapping project (SMP). Through an examination of the historical context preceding KESSP, this dissertation concluded that a sequence of policies fostered a culture of "indicatorism". Donor policies that included structural adjustment and those that promoted global development targets have encouraged both donors and recipient governments to unrelentingly use indicators to judge aid. Within Kenya performance-contracting policies have reinforced this emphasis on indicators. An investigation of how KESSP's indicators were produced revealed that pressures to inflate indicators corrupted KESSP's M & E system. There was strong evidence that national administrative data systems produced exaggerated indicators. However, there was no evidence to suggest that local implementers over-counted core educational statistics intended to produce indicators for KESSP. An investigation of the politics that surrounded KESSP showed that political relations shaped the findings of indicator-based M & E reporting. When relations were strong at the beginning of KESSP, M & E reporting was used to show the success of KESSP. As these relations deteriorated M & E reporting reflected the rifts between donors and the Kenyan government. However, even after donors suspended aid, indicators still framed the discourse about KESSP and free primary education in Kenya. An examination of the use of GI for KESSP's M & E demonstrated that despite its planned use as an integral part of KESSP's M & E, GI was not used to evaluate KESSP. Mapping data about KESSP could have exposed the government to a degree of transparency beyond what reporting aggregate national indicators provided. There are, of course, other explanations why GI was not used. For instance, the rapid creation of new administrative districts could have also made its use infeasible. The absence of transparency in the M & E process could very well be a symptom of the culture of "indicatorism", but this lack of transparency also makes it difficult to rule out alternative explanations about KESSP and its M & E process.

From the perspectives of economic anthropology, feminist anthropology, and feminist theory, this applied anthropological study is an evaluation of a popular international development model targeting poor women. Based on the celebrated Grameen Bank of Bangladesh, the so-called "microcredit" model is designed as a poverty alleviation strategy to provide small loans to poor women in rural settings and is designed to facilitate microenterprise development. Due to the popularity of the microcredit model with the international development community, it is being replicated in different settings. Through an analysis of microenterprise development among Afro-Caribbean women, this study presents the argument that successful application of international development strategies, such as the microcredit model, requires consideration of three critical factors if the objective is to facilitate economic empowerment. First, international development policy and practice has tended to homogenize women, enforce gender-typed work, and emphasize group structure regardless of recipients' needs or preferences. Second, attempts by local governments to replicate the microcredit model may fail due to lack of commitment or inadequate infrastructure. Third, application of international development interventions, such as the microcredit model, must be tailored to fit the cultural and historical context as well as account for the needs and expectations of intended recipients.

Adolescence is a critical developmental period marked by complex transitions. The wellbeing of this population, currently the largest in human history, is important, as adolescents are the future world leaders, citizens, workers, mothers and fathers. Subjective wellbeing research has become popular in recent years, but there are important gaps in the literature. Cross-cultural examinations and comparisons of subjective wellbeing have focused on developed countries. Less is known about subjective wellbeing in developing countries. There are gaps in research on special populations or groups and in the comparison of sub-groups within a population This analysis assesses the subjective wellbeing of adolescents in Cote d'Ivoire, a developing country in sub-Saharan Africa. Multiple measures are used to evaluate adolescent wellbeing from an overall perspective and to explore satisfaction with specific life domains. Potential adolescent risk factors and protective factors are examined to explore if and how they may influence individual assessments of wellbeing. Gender and age-related differences in self-reported wellbeing are examined to explore if and how these groups experience adolescence differently. The Personal Wellbeing Index for School Children is tested as valid a cross-cultural measure of subjective wellbeing Findings suggest that Ivorian adolescents overall report high satisfaction with life. Evidence for gender and age-related differences in subjective wellbeing produced mixed results, which warrants further investigation. The findings also indicate that the experience of different risk and protective factors effects adolescents' perceptions of wellbeing. The results indicate there are gender and age-related differences in the effects of these factors on subjective wellbeing In addition, the evidence suggests that the PWI-SC is a moderately valid and reliable tool for assessing subjective wellbeing in Ivorian adolescents. Ultimately, additional research with adolescent populations in other developing countries is needed to further assess the validity of the PWI-SC as a cross-cultural measure of subjective wellbeing The findings may be used to inform policy on programs targeting adolescents in developing countries. This research could provide guidance to policy makers and program planners about specific factors and domains that could be incorporated into the design of policies and programs intended to protect and/or improve the wellbeing of adolescents / acase@tulane.edu

Water and sanitation (WatSan) development projects impact both natural systems and societal structures where they are placed. A complex process of development, including inter-governmental policies, aid agencies, personal relationships, and community politics enhance and constrain the efficacy of these projects. This study presents the many ways in which the WatSan development process has unintended and unexpected returns for certain community groups. Using a political ecology framework, I look at power structures, perceived and projected environmental impacts, multiple stakeholders, and individual discourses to critique how the right to water and sanitation is implemented in a specific community context. This project advances anthropological thought by showing a praxis-based study that links theory, on-the-ground, ethnographic experience, policy recommendations, and theoretical injections which relate to a variety of audiences, both within and outside of the academy. The project is conducted in two main field locations--La Paz and Sapecho, Bolivia. I employ a mixed-method approach, including interviews with development professionals and community members, a survey of water and sanitation users, focus groups with particularly impacted groups (e.g. water committees, students, and women), and various mapping techniques (GPS mapping, community-led) to address the space and place within which this project was realized. I give specific focus to sewage collection and wastewater treatment, two elements of the WatSan system that are distinctive in this rural developing-country context. WatSan development is not just infrastructure placement. It is a full process, a relationship. It comprises individual conversations, days of work, salaries, payment schedules, labor, expertise, and ongoing management practices. Individual perceptions of infrastructure efficacy, personal benefit, and best practices (both culturally and technologically) impact the long-term effectiveness of a project. Major tensions arise post-implementation: between community and aid agency, conservation and use, labor and upkeep, and sanitation and potable water. There are multiple influences and positions subsumed in this process. The study's political ecology approach, combined with foci on human rights, critical development, and water and culture, provides critical insights into the relationship between social and resource-based (water infrastructure) change. It looks at the ways in which the benefits and risks of a WatSan system are stratified, gendered, and power-laden. It further looks at the potential positive and negative outcomes of the system--all with an enviro-social focus. I look at how social and ecological relationships are tethered together (mutually constituted), how they are influenced by several levels of governance and policy. The experience of Sapecho shows how changes to WatSan environments can provide new water and sanitation access but in some cases, further engrain and exacerbate social inequalities. Provision of fresh water, sewage collection, and wastewater treatment infrastructure is not value-free--but it is necessary. This work tries to answer one small part of the question of how the right to water and sanitation can be best implemented in real-world situations.