Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / O lÃtex vermelho (Sangre de Grado) extraÃdo de algumas espÃcies de Croton à utilizado na medicina popular no tratamento de cÃncer, reumatismo, feridas, Ãlceras, diarrÃia, cÃlicas intestinais e no combate Ãs infecÃÃes. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo investigar uma possÃvel atividade antimicrobiana do lÃtex do Croton urucurana Baill. (LCU) e seu potencial antiinflamatÃrio intestinal e antinociceptivo visceral. Foram utilizados os modelos de colite induzida por Ãcido acÃtico e lesÃo intestinal induzida por isquemia-reperfusÃo mesentÃrica em ratos; contorÃÃes abdominais induzidas por Ãcido acÃtico, cistite induzida por ciclofosfamida e dor visceral induzida por capsaicina em camundongos; alÃm de modelos, in vitro, avaliando as atividades antibacteriana e antifÃngica do LCU. No modelo de colite induzida por Ãcido acÃtico, o prÃ-tratamento com LCU (200 e 400 mg/kg, v.r.) reduziu (p<0,05) a relaÃÃo peso Ãmido/comprimento do cÃlon, a atividade das enzimas mieloperoxidase e catalase e a produÃÃo de nitrito em relaÃÃo ao controle. No modelo de isquemia-reperfusÃo mesentÃrica o prÃ-tratamento com o LCU (200 e 400 mg/kg, v.o.) preveniu (p<0,01) o aumento das atividades da mieloperoxidase e catalase e o aumento dos nÃveis de nitrito associados à isquemia-reperfusÃo. O LCU (200 mg/kg) tambÃm preveniu (p<0,001) a reduÃÃo no nÃvel de glutationa reduzida neste modelo. Ambas as doses reduziram (p<0,05) o nÃmero de contorÃÃes induzidas por Ãcido acÃtico, o nÃmero de comportamentos nociceptivos induzidos pela capsaicina e o tempo de comportamentos relacionados a dor visceral na cistite induzida por ciclofosfamida. O prÃ-tratamento com naloxona (5 mg/kg, i.p.) reverteu a atividade antinociceptiva do LCU (200 mg/kg, v.o.) no modelo de dor visceral induzida por capsaicina, contudo, a ioimbina (2 mg/kg, i.p.) nÃo foi capaz de reverter tal efeito. A atividade antinociceptiva do LCU, neste modelo, nÃo foi potencializada pela administraÃÃo de L-nitro arginina metil Ãster (20 mg/kg, i.p.) ou vermelho de rutÃnio (3 mg/kg, s.c.). O LCU nÃo demonstrou atividade contra Staphylococcus aureus e Escherichia coli e as leveduras Candida sp., Trichosporon sp. e Malassezia sp., no entanto, apresentou atividade contra os dermatÃfitos Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Trichophyton tonsurans, Trichophyton rubrum, Microsporum canis e Epidermophyton floccosum no mÃtodo de difusÃo em discos e demonstrou concentraÃÃo inibitÃria mÃnima de 1,25 mg/mL para o Trichophyton tonsurans e 2,5 mg/mL para as demais espÃcies. Os resultados sugerem que o LCU apresenta atividade antiinflamatÃria intestinal, possivelmente por sua aÃÃo antioxidante, alÃm de atividades antinociceptiva visceral e antifÃngica. Sua atividade antinociceptiva nÃo depende de mecanismo &#945;2-adrenÃrgico, contudo parece haver envolvimento de mecanismo nitriÃrgico e opiÃide, assim como de receptores vanilÃides. Estes resultados confirmam o uso popular do LCU e este pode ser explorado como alternativa para o tratamento das dermatofitoses, das doenÃas inflamatÃrias intestinais e dos distÃrbios da funÃÃo gastrointestinal / The red sap (Sangre de Grado) extracted from some Croton species is used in folk medicine for the treatment of cancer, rheumatism, wounds, ulcers, diarrhoea, intestinal colics and to combat infections. The aim of this study was to evaluate a possible antimicrobian activity of the sap extracted from Croton urucurana Baill. (SCU) and its intestinal antiinflammatory and visceral antinociceptive potential. The experimental models used were acetic acid-induced colitis and mesenteric ischemia/reperfusion-induced intestinal injury in rats; acetic acid-induced writhing, cyclophosphamide-induced cystitis and capsaicin-induced visceral pain in mice; and in vitro models to evaluate the antibacterian and antifungal activities of SCU. In the acetic acid-induced colitis, the pretreatment with SCU (200 and 400 mg/kg, r.r.) reducted (p<0,05) the wet weight/length ratio of colonic tissue, the myeloperoxidase and catalase activities and the nitrite production in comparison to control animals. In mesenteric ischemia/reperfusion model the pretreatment with SCU (200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.) prevented (p<0,01) the increase in the myeloperoxidase and catalase activities and the ischemia/reperfusion-associated increase in nitrite level. The SCU (200 mg/kg, p.o.) also prevented (p<0,001) the depletion in reduced glutathione level in this model. Both doses reduced (p<0,05) the number of acetic acid-induced writhing, the number of capsaicin-induced nociceptive behaviour and the time of visceral pain-related behaviour in cyclophosphamide-induced cystitis in mice. The pretreatment with naloxone (5 mg/kg, i.p.) reverted the SCU (200 mg/kg, p.o.) antinociceptive activity in capsaicin-induced visceral pain model, however, ioimbine (2 mg/kg, i.p.) failed to mitigate in a significant manner, this antinociceptive effect. The SCU antinociceptive activity, in this model, was not potentiated by L-nitro-arginine-methyl esther (20 mg/kg, i.p.) or rutheniun red (3 mg/kg, s.c.). SCU failed to show activity against the bacterias (Staphylococus aureus and Escherichia coli) and yeasts tested (CÃndida sp., Trichosporon sp. and Malassezia sp.), although, presented activity against the dermatophytes Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Trichophyton tonsurans, Trichophyton rubrum, Microsporum canis and Epidermophyton floccosum in paper disk diffusion method and showed minimal inhibitory concentration of 1,25 mg/mL for Trichophyton tonsurans and 2,5 mg/mL for the others species. In conclusion, the results of this study suggest that the SCU presents intestinal antiinflammatory activity, possible because of its antioxidant action, visceral antinociceptive activity and antifungal activity against dermatophytes. Its antinociceptive effect is probable dependent of opioid and nitriergic mechanism, with a possible participation of vaniloid receptors without involvement of &#945;2-adrenergic receptors. This results confirm its popular use, and it can be explored as an alternative treatment for dermatophytosis, inflammatory intestinal diseases and functional gastrointestinal disorders

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第24796号 / 医博第4988号 / 新制||医||1066(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 竹内 理, 教授 上野 英樹, 教授 椛島 健治 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

L’épithélium intestinal, siège de l’absorption des (micro)-nutriments est aussi le premier système de défense de l’organisme. Un déséquilibre dans l’homéostasie peut être à l’origine d’une réaction inflammatoire associée à des défauts de la barrière intestinale et de la fonction immunitaire, ainsi qu’une malabsorption des nutriments, comme rencontré dans les MICI (Maladies Inflammatoires Chroniques de l’Intestin), dans les stratégies de fortification en micronutriments et les pathologies non transmissibles (obésité). Il est donc important de trouver des moyens d’action, via l’alimentation par exemple, pour prévenir ou au minima réduire, les conséquences nutritionnelles et pathologiques de l’inflammation intestinale, et de comprendre les mécanismes impliqués. Parmi les modèles d’études de l’intestin, les modèles in vitro de culture cellulaire sont de plus en plus utilisés et permettent d'évaluer les mécanismes moléculaires d'une manière simple et reproductible et de réduire l'expérimentation animale.Dans ce contexte et dans le but d’étudier l’interaction de composés bioactifs de l’alimentation avec l’intestin en état d’inflammation, le premier objectif de ce travail de thèse a été la mise au point d’un modèle in vitro d’intestin enflammé associant en co-culture deux lignées intestinales humaines : les Caco-2 TC7 (entérocytes) et HT29-MTX (cellules caliciformes) et une lignée immunitaire de macrophages (THP1). Plusieurs marqueurs d’inflammation ont été évalués et nous avons pu montrer que le modèle de tri-culture répondait à un stimulus inflammatoire (LPS/IFNγ), par une augmentation de la production de cytokines pro-inflammatoires (TNF-α, IL6 et IL8) et d’enzymes (INOS et COX2) ainsi que l’expression de leurs gènes. Par ailleurs, une augmentation de la perméabilité épithéliale via une altération des jonctions serrées (TJs) a également pu être mise en évidence ainsi qu’une surproduction de mucus, lesquels sont des caractéristiques reconnus d’inflammation.Le deuxième objectif était d’étudier l’interaction de la β-cryptoxanthine (BCX), caroténoïde des agrumes, lipophile et anti-oxydant, avec le modèle enflammé. Nous avons utilisé pour solubiliser la BCX deux types de micelles (artificielles et physiologiques) et étudié les marqueurs d’inflammation. Bien qu’il semble d’après les résultats préliminaires que les micelles de BCX montrent une tendance à diminuer la production de certaines cytokines (IL6 et IL8), le rôle des constituants des micelles (Tween 40 ou sels biliaires/phospholipides) dans ce phénomène observé et dans la perméabilité épithéliale reste à clarifier par la suite. / The intestinal epithelium, main place of the absorption of (micro)-nutrients is also the first body's defense system. An imbalance in homeostasis can lead to an inflammatory reaction associated with defects in the intestinal barrier and immune function as well as malabsorption of nutrients, as seen in IBD (Inflammatory Bowel Diseases), in micronutrient fortification strategies and noncommunicable diseases (obesity). It is therefore important to find ways of action, for example through diet, to prevent or at least reduce the nutritional and pathological consequences of intestinal inflammation, and to understand the mechanisms involved. Among intestinal models, in vitro cell culture models are increasingly used and allow to evaluate the molecular mechanisms in a simple and reproducible way and to reduce animal experimentation.In this context and in order to study the interaction of dietary bioactive compounds with the intestine in state of inflammation, the first objective of this work was the development of an in vitro model of inflamed intestine combining in co-culture two human intestinal cell lines: Caco-2 TC7 (enterocytes) and HT29-MTX (goblet cells) and an immune cell line of macrophages (THP1). Several inflammation markers were evaluated and we were able to show that the tri-culture model responded to an inflammatory stimulus (LPS / IFNγ), by increasing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL6 and IL8) and enzymes (INOS and COX2) as well as the expression of their genes. In addition, an increase of epithelial permeability via tight junctions (TJs) alteration has also been demonstrated, as well as overproduction of mucus, which are recognized inflammation characteristics.The second objective was to study the interaction of β-cryptoxanthin (BCX), a lipophilic and antioxidant carotenoid of citrus, with the inflamed model. To solubilize BCX, we used two types of micelles (artificial and physiological) and studied markers of inflammation. Although it appears from the preliminary results that BCX micelles show a tendency to decrease the production of some cytokines (IL6 and IL8), the role of micelle constituents (Tween 40 or bile salts / phospholipids) in the phenomenon observed and in the epithelial permeability remains to be therefore clarified.

Changes to the composition and function of the gut mononuclear phagocyte (MNP) compartment are associated with the development of intestinal inflammation. Much work has focused on the role of MNPs in gut-associated lymphoid tissue in maintaining homeostasis, however little is known regarding the roles of MNPs during colitis. We have investigated MNPs in the large intestinal lamina propria during the steady state and inflammation. One of our primary aims was to determine the contribution of MNP subsets to intestinal pathology. For our studies of inflammation, we focused mainly on the Helicobacter hepaticus infection &plus; anti-IL-10R model, which induces inflammation of the colon and caecum (typhlocolitis). We defined the composition of the MNP compartment alongside intestinal pathology scores throughout Hh &plus; anti-IL-10R typhlocolitis. Peak pathology, 2-3 weeks after induction of colitis, coincided with peak frequencies of CX₃CR1^int Ly6C^&plus; MNPs. Having observed the accumulation of CX₃CR1^int CD64^&plus; monocyte/macrophage MNPs in the inflamed lamina propria, we conducted comparative whole genome microarray analysis of these cells isolated from the large intestine three weeks after Hh &plus; anti-IL-10R treatment. CX₃CR1^int CD64^&plus; MNPs selectively expressed a variety of pro- and anti-inflammatory genes, including a number of genes which individually can both promote and negatively regulate inflammation. IL-23 is essential for Hh &plus; anti-IL-10R-induced intestinal pathology. We investigated the role of MNPs as a source of IL-23 which drives Hh &plus; anti-IL-10R colitis. Unexpectedly, our results indicate that normally hyporesponsive CX₃CR1^hi macrophages may act as the initial source of IL-23, which induces development of colitis. Recruitment of Ly6C^&plus; MHCII^&plus; MNPs to the lamina propria was IL-23-dependent, and these cells also expressed IL-23, which may establish a positive feedback loop of immune cell recruitment, activation and IL-23 production. Finally, we also examined how MNPs might be recruited to the colonic lamina propria during inflammation. Our studies support the conclusion that CCR6 is not required for accumulation of monocyte-derived populations in the inflamed intestine. We cannot rule out a role for CCR2, however preliminary data from the Hh &plus; anti-IL-10R colitis model suggest a potential role for CCR1 or its close relation CCRL2. Such pathways could represent new therapeutic targets in inflammatory bowel disease.

Microbiota colonisation of the intestinal tract makes it difficult for pattern recognition receptors (PRR) to discriminate between beneficial microbes and harmful pathogens. We aim to define the roles of cytosolic Nod-like receptors (NLR) in intestinal immunity and homeostasis. Upon activation, some NLR form inflammasomes that mediate the release of inflammatory cytokines and pyroptosis, an inflammatory form of cell death. NLR activation in the non-hematopoietic compartment was shown to be protective during acute intestinal infection. To identify the cell type responsible for this protection, we generated transgenic mice in which the key inflammasome adaptor molecule Asc is selectively ablated in intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) (Asc^ΔVC) and observed that inflammasomes are important for controlling Citrobacter rodentium clearance in these mice. To further dissect the importance of pathogen clearance by IEC inflammasome, ex vivo cultures of primary IEC organoids were established. Thus far this system has revealed profound differences in inflammasome regulation between IEC organoids and bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM). This research will inform our understanding of cell type-specific regulation of inflammasomes.

Chronic conditions such as obesity, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and colitis are associated with gastrointestinal (GI) inflammation and compromised GI barrier integrity. Cocoa may be a potential dietary strategy to mitigate gut-related conditions and been shown to elicit anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and prebiotic effects. Alkali treatment of cocoa was once thought to reduce its bioactivity, but new evidence suggests it may enhance cocoa's health properties, through the formation of new, potentially bioactive high molecular weight compounds. Inulin, a fructose-containing plant polymer, exerts prebiotic effects and has also been investigated in the mitigation of IBD. This study aims to 1) investigate effects of alkali processing on gut health related bioactivity and phytochemical composition of cocoa and 2) evaluate potential additive benefits of combining cocoa and inulin. Polyphenolic and flavanol compounds in natural cocoa, alkalized cocoa, and inulin powders were characterized using Folin-Ciocalteu (total polyphenols) and 4-dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde (total flavanols) assays, thiolysis , and HILIC UPLC-MS/MS. Treatments of cocoa and inulin were made in 1:2 cocoa:inulin and 1:4 cocoa:inulin mixtures for both natural and alkalized cocoas. Cocoa mixtures, in addition to both cocoa powders and inulin alone, were subjected to an in-vitro digestion to generate material for an in-vitro fecal fermentation. Samples collected from the fermentation at 0, 6, 12, and 24 hours were analyzed via HPLC-MS for microbial metabolites, applied to HT-29 colon cancer cells to assess anti-inflammatory activity, and applied to a florescence assay measuring PLA2 inhibitory activity. The alkalized cocoa powder was found to have a significantly lower concentration of total polyphenols and total flavanols, as well as a lower mDP, suggesting that alkalization may affect larger procyanidins more than smaller flavanol compounds. Inulin enhanced the inhibition of the PLA2 enzyme and enhanced the IL-8 anti-inflammatory properties of cocoa, although the trends were weak. Overall, we did not see any clear, significant effects of alkalization or the addition of inulin to cocoa's colonic metabolite formation or its gut bioactivity in vitro. However, we have demonstrated that colonic fermentation of cocoa may have a negative effect on its bioactivity in vitro. Future research should further explore flavanol DP and bioactivity, fiber's interaction with polyphenols, colonic metabolism of cocoa, and cocoa's gut health effects in vivo. / Master of Science in Life Sciences / Gut conditions like obesity-associated inflammation and inflammatory bowel disease are highly prevalent, debilitating, and currently have no cure. Cocoa has been investigated as a possible dietary strategy for the mitigation and prevention of chronic inflammatory gut conditions due to its anti-inflammatory and enzyme inhibiting properties. Most attribute these effects of cocoa to its abundance of compounds called polyphenols. It is widely thought that the ability of cocoa to promote health is lost when cocoa beans are processed, because of the loss of polyphenols. Alkalization, or "Dutching", is an optional step in cocoa processing that some manufacturers perform to enhance flavor and color formation. Dutching cocoa can promote the polymerization of many smaller, flavanol, protein, and other compounds into larger, indigestible compounds. These indigestible compounds will not be absorbed in the small intestine and may be broken down in the large intestine by colonic bacteria, forming new metabolites. We obtained cocoa powders, one natural (not alkalized) and one alkalized and compared them in terms of content of polyphenols, bioactivities, and anti-inflammatory abilities. Additionally, we added a known prebiotic, inulin, to our cocoa formulations to determine if there are additive benefits of cocoa and inulin together. Ultimately, we found that alkalized cocoa contained lower concentrations of all polyphenolic compounds, even the larger compounds. Inulin enhanced the inhibition of digestive enzymes and the anti-inflammatory properties of cocoa, though not significantly. Inulin also reduced the pH (i.e. increased the acidity) of a simulated gut environment, which may be beneficial. Alkalization did not significantly affect cocoa's enzyme inhibitory activity or anti-inflammatory activity. Overall, the addition of inulin to cocoa does not seem to be effective in increasing cocoa's ability to treat and prevent gut diseases, but more information is needed.

Les patients fibrose kystique (FK) souffrent de complications digestives qui incluent une inflammation intestinale modérée dont l’étiologie est méconnue. Les personnes atteintes de FK présentent également une malabsorption des vitamines liposolubles, telles la vitamine D. Or, la vitamine D possède des propriétés immunomodulatrices et anti-inflammatoires. Le présent projet vise à investiguer le rôle du CFTR, dont le gène est muté dans la FK, dans l’étiologie de cette inflammation intestinale et à étudier le potentiel anti-inflammatoire de la vitamine D sur celle-ci. Le CFTR a été invalidé génétiquement par la méthode des ARN interférents (shRNAi) et/ou inhibé pharmacologiquement par l’utilisation d’un antagoniste inhibiteur spécifique (CFTRinh-172). Un état inflammatoire a été induit par les cytokines pro-inflammatoires TNF-α et IL-1β. Afin d’évaluer le rôle anti-inflammatoire de la vitamine D, les cellules ont été pré-traitées avec la forme bioactive de la vitamine D, la 1,25(OH)2D3. La sécrétion et l’expression génique d’interleukine-8, ainsi que l’activation de la voie de signalisation p38MAPK et du facteur de transcription NFκB ont été évaluées. Pour explorer la voie par laquelle la vitamine D exerce ses actions anti-inflammatoires, les cellules ont été pré-incubées avec le BIRB796 pour inhiber la voie p38MAPK. Finalement l’expression génique du récepteur nucléaire de la vitamine D et des hydroxylases intestinales impliquées dans son métabolisme a été déterminée. Nos résultats suggèrent que le CFTR a un rôle dans l’étiologie de l’inflammation intestinale associée à la FK. De plus, la vitamine D semble moduler à la baisse la réponse inflammatoire de la cellule intestinale dont le CFTR a été génétiquement invalidé. / Cystic fibrosis (CF) patients suffer from various digestive complications including moderate intestinal inflammation which etiology is unknown. Individuals with CF also display malabsorption of fat-soluble vitamins; including vitamin D. Vitamin D is a hormone that has immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties. This project aims to investigate the role of CFTR, the mutated gene in CF, in the etiology of CF-related intestinal inflammation and to study the anti-inflammatory potential of vitamin D at this level. CFTR was genetically depleted by means of short hairpin RNA interference (shRNAi) and/or pharmacologically inhibited by the use of a specific inhibitor (CFTRinh-172). An inflammatory state was induced by pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β. To evaluate the anti-inflammatory role of vitamin D, cells have been pre-treated with the bioactive form of vitamin D, 1,25(OH)2D3. The secretion and gene expression of interleukin-8, as well as the activation of the p38MAPK signaling pathway and the NFκB transcription factor were assessed. To explore how vitamin D exerts its anti-inflammatory actions, cells were incubated with the BIRB796 to inhibit the p38MAPK pathway. Finally, gene expression of the vitamin D nuclear receptor and the intestinal hydroxylases involved in vitamin D metabolism were assessed. Our results suggest that CFTR plays a role in the etiology of intestinal inflammation associated with CF and that vitamin D reduces the inflammatory responses of CFTR knockdown cells.

O trato gastrointestinal é um sítio de alta exposição antigênica, por isso requer a presença de mecanismos de regulação imunológica mediada por linfócitos T reguladores e T auxiliares produtores de IL-17 (Th17) na mucosa intestinal. Se houvera falha na indução desses mecanismos, pode ocorrer o desequilíbrio das populações de bactérias comensais da microbiota intestinal, denominado de disbiose, geralmente associado à ruptura da barreira intestinal e translocação de bactérias ou LPS para o sangue. Neste sentido, alguns estudos têm evidenciado a importância dos linfócitos Th17 no intestino, já que estas células tem a capacidade de manter a integridade da barreira intestinal e, como conseqüência controlar a colonização e translocação bacteriana. Em adição, em pacientes e animais diabéticos têm sido observada a correlação de altos níveis de LPS circulantes e resistência à insulina. Baseado nessas evidências, nosso objetivo foi avaliar o papel da citocina IL-17 no controle das alterações inflamatórias e metabólicas no modelo de diabetes do tipo 2 (DM2). Para isso, foram utilizados camundongos C57BL/6 selvagens (WT) ou deficientes do receptor da citocina IL-17 (IL-17R-/-) submetidos à dieta controle (DN), composta por 10% de gorduras, 70% de carboidratos e 20% de proteínas ou à dieta hiperlipídica (DH), composta por 60% de gorduras, 20% de carboidratos e 20% de proteínas. Nossos dados demonstraram que a deficiência do receptor de IL-17 protegeu os animais contra a obesidade, mas os mesmos desenvolveram maior hiperglicemia e hiperinsulinemia decorrente da resistência à insulina. Além disso, foi verificada a hiperplasia das ilhotas pancreáticas, anormalidades na arquitetura e intenso infiltrado inflamatório no intestino (íleo) dos animais IL-17R-/- comparados aos WT após DH. Esse fato parece estar correlacionado a um defeito da migração de neutrófilos para a mucosa intestinal, uma vez que foi detectada reduzida expressão gênica da quimiocina CXCL-1 e do receptor CXCR-2 no íleo desses animais. De maneira interessante, as populações de neutrófilos (CD11b+Ly6G+) e de macrófagos anti-inflamatórios (CD11b+CX3CR1+) mostraram-se aumentadas nos linfonodos mesentéricos dos animais IL-17R-/- após DH. Em seguida, foi constatada maior translocação bacteriana no sangue tanto de animais IL-17R-/- submetidos à DN como DH. Entretanto, a análise metagenômica do gene 16S revelou a prevalência de bactérias Bacteroidetes e Proteobacterias, principais representantes de bactérias gram-negativas, somente nas fezes dos animais IL-17R-/- submetidos à DH. Em conjunto, estes dados indicam que o eixo IL-17/IL-17R é importante na manutenção da homeostase intestinal e na regulação das alterações inflamatórias e metabólicas associadas ao DM2 / The gastrointestinal tract is a high antigenic exposure site, so it requires the presence of immune regulation mechanisms mediated by regulatory T lymphocytes and IL-17- producing T helper lymphocytes (Th17) in the intestinal mucosa. If there is a failure in the induction of these mechanisms, may occur the imbalance in the populations of commensal bacteria of the intestinal microbiota, called dysbiosis, generally associated with the break of the intestinal barrier and translocation of bacteria or their products like LPS into the blood. In this regard, some studies have evidenced the importance of Th17 lymphocytes in the intestine, since these cells have the ability to maintain the integrity of the intestinal barrier, and consequently controlling the colonization and bacterial translocation. In addition, in patients and diabetic animals have been observed correlation between high circulating levels of LPS and insulin resistance. Based on this evidence, our objective was to evaluate the role of IL-17 cytokine in the control of inflammatory and metabolic changes in the type 2 diabetes (T2DM). For this reason, were used C57BL/6 wild-type mice (WT) or lacking of IL-17 cytokine receptor (IL-17R-/-) mice undergoing to the control diet (ND) comprising 10% fat, 70% carbohydrate and 20% protein or high fat diet (DH), comprising 60% fat, 20% carbohydrates and 20% protein. These data demonstrate that IL-17 receptor deficiency protected the animals against obesity, but these mice developed hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia due to insulin resistance. Furthermore, we verified a hyperplasia of the pancreatic islets, abnormalities in architecture and intense inflammation in the intestine (ileum) of IL-17R-/- animals undergoing DH compared to WT. This appears to be correlated to a defect in the neutrophil migration to the intestinal mucosa, since was detected reduced gene expression of the CXCL-1 chemokine and CXCR-2 receptor in the ileum of these animals. Interestingly, the populations of neutrophils (CD11b+Ly6G+) and antiinflammatory macrophages (CD11b+CX3CR1+) were shown to be increased in the mesenteric lymph nodes of IL-17R-/- animals after DH. Later, it was found more bacterial translocation in blood, both in IL-17R-/- mice with ND or DH. However, the metagenomic analyzes of the 16S gene revealed increased of Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes phyla, the main representatives of gram-negative bacteria, only in the faeces of IL-17R-/- mice underwent DH. Together, these data indicate that IL-17/IL-17R axis is important in maintaining intestinal homeostasis and the regulation of inflammatory and metabolic alterations associated to T2DM

La carence en donneurs de méthyle (acide folique et vitamine B12) (MDD) pendant la gestation et la lactation produit une stéato-hépatite non alcoolique (NASH) chez les animaux soumis au régime riche en graisses (HE) pendant l'âge adulte, en dépit d’une normalisation histologique et métabolique par un régime normal entre le sevrage (J21) et l’âge de puberté (J50). Le microbiote peut déclencher l'inflammation par les lipopolysaccharides (LPS) par inadaptation de l’activation de récepteur Toll-like 4(TLR4). Notre hypothèse de base est que le régime MDD, le régime HE, les LPS du microbiote et l’inflammation intestinale (modèle Dextran Sodium Sulfate (DSS) comme déclencheurs et l'immunité innée en tant que modulateur font partie d’un même scénario conduisant à la NASH. Des rats carencés (MDD), soumis ou non au régime riche en graisse à l’âge adulte (HE) et exposés ou non à deux inducteurs de l’inflammation locale et systémique, le DSS (inflammation intestinale) et les LPS (effets systémiques de l’inflammation intestinale) ont été étudiés. Nous n’observons pas d’altération de l’immunité innée (TLR4) dans les groupes MDD/DSS, MDD/HE et MDD/HE/LPS. L’inflammation observée au niveau intestinal chez les rats MDD/DSS est également observée au niveau hépatique, avec de stéatose et activation de l’inflammasome et de la chimiokine MCP-1 et IL-1beta. De façon surprenante, cet effet systémique ne met pas en jeu la voie TLR4 et son ligand LPS même quand les rats étaient exposés au LPS directement au niveau péritonéal.Notre étude permet de conclure que la NASH favorisée par les effets systémiques de l’inflammation intestinale est médiée par MCP-1/IL-1β, mais pas par l'activation de TLR4 par translocation de LPS. L’immunité innée n’ étant pas impliquée même par l’injection directe du LPS, les effets respectifs et synergiques de régime MDD, du régime HE et du LPS restent à décrypter par la suite. / Deficiency of methyl donors (folic acid and vitamin B12) (MDD) during pregnancy and lactation produces non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) in animals fed high fat (HE) diet, despite histological and metabolic normalization by a normal diet between weaning (J21) and puberty (J50). The microbiota can trigger inflammation by lipopolysaccharides (LPS) by inadaptation of Toll-like receptor activation 4 (TLR4). Our basic assumption is that MDD, HE diet, microbiota LPS and intestinal inflammation (Dextran Sodium Sulfate (DSS) model) as triggers and innate immunity as a modulator are part of the same scenario leading to NASH. Deficient rats (MDD), whether or not exposed to the high-fat diet in adulthood (HE) and whether or not exposed to two inducers of local and systemic inflammation, DSS (intestinal inflammation) or LPS (systemic effects intestinal inflammation) were studied. We did not observe alterations in innate immunity (TLR4) in the MDD/DSS, MDD/HE and MDD/HE/LPS groups. Inflammation observed in the intestines in MDD/DSS rats is also observed in the liver, with steatosis and activation of the inflammasome and chemokine MCP-1 and IL-1beta. Surprisingly, this systemic effect does not involve the TLR4 pathway and its ligand LPS even when the rats were exposed to LPS directly at the peritoneal level. Our study conclude that NASH favored by the systemic effects of Intestinal inflammation is mediated by MCP-1/IL-1β, but not by activation of TLR4 by translocation of LPS. Since innate immunity is not involved even by the direct injection of LPS, the respective and synergistic effects of MDD diet, HE diet and LPS remain to be decribed thereafter.

Le microbiote intestinal joue un rôle primordial dans l’homéostasie du tractus gastro-intestinal, et plus généralement dans celle de son hôte. A ce titre, de nombreuses pathologies humaines sont associées à une dysbiose de ce microbiote intestinal, tels que les cancers colorectaux, les maladies inflammatoires chroniques de l’intestin (MICI), les troubles du métabolisme ou encore les maladies auto-immunes. Ces pathologies ont une étiologie mal connue et multifactorielle dans laquelle l’environnement semble jouer un rôle clé. Des études récentes ont ainsi mis en évidence un lien entre la pollution atmosphérique et des pathologies humaines telles que les MICI. Parmi les différentes substances polluantes répertoriées, le benzo[a]pyrène (BaP), qui fait partie de la famille des hydrocarbures aromatiques polycycliques, est soumis à une surveillance accrue en raison de ses effets toxiques sur la santé humaine. De par ses propriétés pro-inflammatoires et mutagènes, le BaP pourrait modifier la composition du microbiote intestinal, induisant alors à une réponse inflammatoire et à une altération des fonctions intestinales. Dans le cadre de ce travail de thèse, une surexposition orale et chronique au BaP en modèle murin a conduit à une inflammation modérée principalement au niveau de la muqueuse iléale. L’analyse des amplicons du gène codant l’ARNr 16S a mis en évidence des modifications de la composition et de l’abondance relative des communautés bactériennes fécales et associées à la muqueuse intestinale avec notamment une augmentation et une diminution des taxa pro et anti-inflammatoires respectivement. Ainsi, dans des conditions de susceptibilité génétique et/ou en association avec d’autres facteurs environnementaux, l’exposition à ce polluant pourrait déclencher et/ou accélérer le développement de pathologies inflammatoires. L’identification des potentialités métaboliques des différentes populations bactériennes caractérisées précédemment et impactées par le polluant revêt donc un caractère primordial. La reconstruction de génomes directement à partir de l’écosystème microbien peut permettre d’établir ce lien entre structure et fonction. C’est également dans ce contexte, qu’une approche innovante de capture de gènes en solution a été développée. En effet, cette technique d’enrichissement permet de reconstruire de larges portions génomiques pouvant relier un biomarqueur phylogénétique à des gènes fonctionnels, y compris pour des populations bactériennes présentes en très faible abondance dans l’écosystème. / Gut microbiota plays a primordial role in gastro-intestinal tract and host homeostasis. Numerous pathologies are associated with a gut microbiota dysbioses, such as colorectal cancer, inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), metabolism disorders or autoimmune diseases. The physiopathology of these diseases has multifactorial aetiology in which environmental factors seem to play a crucial role. Recent evidences have highlighted a link between air pollution and human diseases such as IBD. Among the different pollutant listed, benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), which belong to the family of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, is subject to an increase surveillance due to its toxic effects on human health. By its pro-inflammatory and mutagenic proprieties, BaP could lead to modifications of gut microbiota composition, then inducing an inflammatory response and an alteration of intestinal functions. As part of this thesis, BaP subchronic oral exposure in murine model has led to a moderate inflammation mostly in ileal mucosa. The analysis of ARNr 16S amplicons has highlighted composition and abundance alterations of faecal and mucosa-associated microbiota, especially with increase and decrease of pro and anti- inflammatory taxa respectively. Thus, under conditions of genetic susceptibility and/or in association with other environmental factors, exposure to this pollutant could trigger and/or accelerate the development of inflammatory pathologies. Metabolic potential identification of different bacterial populations previously characterized and affected by the pollutant appears therefore primordial. Genome reconstruction directly from microbial ecosystem could allow to establish this link between structure and function. Also in this context, an innovative approach of gene capture in solution was developed. Indeed, this enrichment technique allows to reconstruct large genomic portions that could link phylogenetic biomarker and functional genes, including for bacterial populations present at very low abundance in the ecosystem.