Most studies of the investment-cash flow sensitivity hypothesis in the literature compare estimates of the sensitivity coefficients from cross sectional regressions across groups of firms classified into more or less financially constrained groups based on some measure of perceived financial constraint. These studies report conflicting results depending on the classification scheme used to stratify the sample. They have been criticized on conceptual and methodological grounds. In this study we mitigate some of these problems reported in the literature by using the insights from Cleary, Povel and Raith (2007) in a new research design. We test for the significances of the changes in the investment-cash flow sensitivity, in a time-series rather than cross sectional framework, for the same set of firms surrounding an exogenous shock to the firms' information asymmetry. The CPR (2007) model predicts an unambiguous increase (decrease) in investment-cash flow sensitivity when information asymmetry of the firm increases (decreases). Further, by examining the differences in the sensitivity coefficients we expect some of the biases in the coefficient from measurement errors in Q to cancel out. The two events we study are (i) the implementation of SOX which is expected to decrease information asymmetry from improved and increased disclosure and (ii) the deregulation of industries which is expected to increase information asymmetry largely from the lifting of price controls and entry barriers. We report that information asymmetry decreases following SOX and that there is a commensurate decrease in the investment-cash flow sensitivity, pre- to post SOX. The hypothesis that a greater change in investment cash flow sensitivity is associated with a greater change in information asymmetry is only weakly supported by the data. We also report that information asymmetry increases following deregulation with a commensurate increase in investment cash flow sensitivity, pre to post deregulation. The hypothesis of a greater increase in the sensitivity for subsamples with a greater increase in information asymmetry is not supported by the data. Overall, however, the study supports the investment-cash flow sensitivity hypothesis using a research design that corrects for some of the problems identified in the existing literature on the hypothesis. / Ph. D.

Investment, financing and dividend policies are critical for firms. The natures of these three policies may be significantly influenced by bankers on the board. Previous studies have examined the relationship between financing policy and bankers on the board. However, the influence of bankers on the board on corporate investment and dividend policies remains unexamined. Therefore, this paper tries to shed further light on whether bankers on the board affect corporate investment-cash flow sensitivity and dividend policy. This study collects data from Taiwan publicly traded corporations that have banker directors between 2003 and 2007, together with a matching sample consisting of firms without banker directors. Variables used to construct empirical analyses are from the Taiwan Economic Journal (TEJ) database. The results show that the presence of bankers appointed to corporate directors and the percentage of banker directors positively affect the firm¡¦s investment-cash flow sensitivity positively. This study also finds a negative relationship between the presence of banker directors and the likelihood of dividend payment. The percentage of banker directors has negative impacts on the likelihood of dividend payment and corporate dividend payout ratio.

Much of the literature on investment-cash flow sensitivity examines only manufacturing firms, uses capital expenditure as a measure of investment, and uses operating cash flow as a measure of internal funds. Over the last several decades, due to outsourcing, the importance of manufacturing firms in the U.S. economy and the importance of capital expenditure as the primary type of investment have declined. The introduction of the Nasdaq exchange allowed smaller, less-profitable, and more human-capital intensive firms to become public, lowering the importance of operating cash flow as the primary source of internal funds. To take into account these trends, I introduce three innovations to the prior literature. (i) I include non-manufacturing firms. (ii) I broaden the definition of investment to include R&D and SG&A (which are both investments in human capital required at the innovation and marketing stages of the product life cycle), cash investment in subsidiaries and joint ventures, and the cash used to finance acquisitions. (iii) I broaden the definition of internal funds to include cash holding available at the beginning of the year. Empirically, non-manufacturing firms are more capital intensive than non-manufacturing firms, and hence excluding these firms could understate the true investment-cash flow sensitivity. Capital expenditure understates true investment, and hence excluding other forms of investment could also understate the true investment-cash flow sensitivity. Finally, operating cash flow understates true internal funds, and excluding cash holdings could overstate the true investment-cash flow sensitivity. The net effect of my proposed changes on the sensitivity is, therefore, an empirical issue. Overall, I document that investment is highly sensitive to cash flow––it is 570% higher than what I estimate using the definitions in prior literature––and this higher sensitivity is primarily caused by broadening the definition of investment. Further, though the sensitivity declines over time, the decline is modest and, importantly, the sensitivity is still economically and statistically significant in recent years. I identify three factors that have contributed to this decline: (i) the decline in Fed Funds rate (ii) changing firm characteristics and, (iii) changing firm composition. The changing characteristics and changing composition of firms are possibly due to macro trends such as outsourcing and the introduction of Nasdaq exchange. While outsourcing reduced firms’ capital expenditure, the introduction of the Nasdaq facilitated listing of less profitable and more human-capital intensive firms. Such firms are likely to invest more in R&D and SG&A and are less reliant on operating cash flow for their investment. These macro trends altered firms’ investment and cash flow mix, specifically decreasing the investment-cash flow ratio, which, in turn, contributed to the decrease in investment-cash flow sensitivity. / Business Administration/Finance

Several research studies in finance have investigated the effect of financial factors on investment decisions of firms. More recently, researchers have extended conventional models of firm-investment by incorporating a role for financing constraints in determining the firm's investment decision. Empirical work points to overwhelming evidence that in the presence of market imperfections, firm investments become sensitive to the availability of internal cash flows. However, the evidence regarding the patterns of these observed investment-cash flow sensitivities has been ambiguous. In this study we examine the impact of financial development on the sensitivity of firm-level investment to internal cash flow. Using international data from 31 countries over the 1987-1997 period, we find that after controlling for growth opportunities (as measured by Tobin's Q), investment is more sensitive to cash flow for firms in less financially developed countries, indicating higher costs of information problems and lower availability of external capital in such countries. The results are robust to six different measures of financial development. We also find a strong negative relationship between investment cash-flow sensitivity and size (as measured by log of total assets) across countries, though our results are mixed when we investigate this size effect within 6 OECD countries. Overall, these findings are consistent with the notion that smaller firms face greater information costs and are therefore more dependent on internally generated capital for making their investment outlays. Furthermore, we establish a direct connection between the investment cash flow sensitivity studies and a parallel literature on the allocational efficiency of capital markets. We also document important distortionary impacts of using log specifications in the empirical estimation, and of including negative cash flow observations in the sample, which explain the qualitative difference between our results and those of some earlier studies. Finally, our results have important policy implications. Firms that are based in countries with poor standards of financial accounting and information disclosure are found to face greater challenges in accessing external capital markets. These firms are likely to experience high under-investment costs that, at a macro level, would translate into slower economic growth for the country. / Ph. D.

Este trabalho analisa a evolução do grau de restrição de capital (dívida ou emissão de ações), sob a abordagem da relação entre a fluxo de caixa e investimetno (\"cash flow sensitivity\"), para empresas brasileiras e argentinas para quatro períodos macroeconômicos distintos. Estimou - se essa relação por meio de análise econométrica de painel para empresas de dois países: Brasil e Argentina. Espera-se que, na presença de imperfeições de mercado, ocorra restrição de capitais (financiamento externo), que se manisfeta por meio de uma relação positiva e significante entre o fluxo de caixa e o investimento. Os resultados mostram que a sensibilidade do investimento a variações no fluxo de caixa segue trajetória muito parecida nos dois países. De 1995 a 1997, período de estabilização econômica e crescimento em ambos os países, a relação foi positiva e significante, mostrando haver significativa restrição de capital. De 1998 a 2003, os anos das multi crises externas e internas, a relação entre as duas variáveis não foi estatisticamente significante. É um período em que as empresas utilizam as fontes de capital mais para assegurar a própria sobrevivência do que para crescer. De 2004 a 2007, os anos de recuperação da economia mundial, o coeficiente volta a ter relação positiva e significante, mas menor comparativametne ao período base (1995 a 1997). No Brasil, esse período foi caracterizado pelo fortalecimento dos mecanismos de governança corporativa, que aliados ao crescimento econômico e à oferta de capitais internacionais, propiciaram uma onda de aberturas de capital de empresas. De 2008 a 2009, período da crise financeira global, essa relação sofre um ligeiro acréscimo em ambos os paises. Apesar da vasta literatura sobre o tema, poucos trabalhos abordam a evolução da sensibilidade do investimento ao fluxo de caixa no tempo. Este trabalho visa a preencher esta lacuna para o Brasil e para a Argentina. / This article analyzes the degree of restriction of capital (debt or issuing shares), under the approach of the investment-cash flow sensitivity, suffered by companies from Brazil and Argentina in four different macroeconomic periods. This relation was estimated via econometric analysis of panel for the companies of the two countries. It is expected to have capital constraints when under the presence of market imperfections. This restriction is manifested through a positive and significant relation between cash flow and investment. The results showed that the link between investment and cash flow sensitivity was very similar in the both countries. From 1995 to 1997, period of economic stability and economic growth in both countries, this relationship was positive and significant showing a capital constraints. From 1998 to 2003 (multi-crisis), the relationship between the two variables was not statistically significant. It was a period that companies use their external finance to survive in the recession. From 2004 to 2007, world economic recovery, the rate reverts to a positive and significant, but lower compared with the baseline period (1995-1997). In Brazil, this period was characterized by the strengthening of corporate governance mechanisms which, together with economic growth and the supply of international capital, led a wave of IPOs of companies. De 2008 a 2009, the period of global financial crisis, this relationship suffers a slight increase. Despite the vast literature on the subject, studies regarding the evolution of the sensitivity of investment to cash flow in time.This work aims to fill this gap for Brazil and Argentina.

Este trabalho analisa a evolução do grau de restrição de capital (dívida ou emissão de ações), sob a abordagem da relação entre a fluxo de caixa e investimetno (\"cash flow sensitivity\"), para empresas brasileiras e argentinas para quatro períodos macroeconômicos distintos. Estimou - se essa relação por meio de análise econométrica de painel para empresas de dois países: Brasil e Argentina. Espera-se que, na presença de imperfeições de mercado, ocorra restrição de capitais (financiamento externo), que se manisfeta por meio de uma relação positiva e significante entre o fluxo de caixa e o investimento. Os resultados mostram que a sensibilidade do investimento a variações no fluxo de caixa segue trajetória muito parecida nos dois países. De 1995 a 1997, período de estabilização econômica e crescimento em ambos os países, a relação foi positiva e significante, mostrando haver significativa restrição de capital. De 1998 a 2003, os anos das multi crises externas e internas, a relação entre as duas variáveis não foi estatisticamente significante. É um período em que as empresas utilizam as fontes de capital mais para assegurar a própria sobrevivência do que para crescer. De 2004 a 2007, os anos de recuperação da economia mundial, o coeficiente volta a ter relação positiva e significante, mas menor comparativametne ao período base (1995 a 1997). No Brasil, esse período foi caracterizado pelo fortalecimento dos mecanismos de governança corporativa, que aliados ao crescimento econômico e à oferta de capitais internacionais, propiciaram uma onda de aberturas de capital de empresas. De 2008 a 2009, período da crise financeira global, essa relação sofre um ligeiro acréscimo em ambos os paises. Apesar da vasta literatura sobre o tema, poucos trabalhos abordam a evolução da sensibilidade do investimento ao fluxo de caixa no tempo. Este trabalho visa a preencher esta lacuna para o Brasil e para a Argentina. / This article analyzes the degree of restriction of capital (debt or issuing shares), under the approach of the investment-cash flow sensitivity, suffered by companies from Brazil and Argentina in four different macroeconomic periods. This relation was estimated via econometric analysis of panel for the companies of the two countries. It is expected to have capital constraints when under the presence of market imperfections. This restriction is manifested through a positive and significant relation between cash flow and investment. The results showed that the link between investment and cash flow sensitivity was very similar in the both countries. From 1995 to 1997, period of economic stability and economic growth in both countries, this relationship was positive and significant showing a capital constraints. From 1998 to 2003 (multi-crisis), the relationship between the two variables was not statistically significant. It was a period that companies use their external finance to survive in the recession. From 2004 to 2007, world economic recovery, the rate reverts to a positive and significant, but lower compared with the baseline period (1995-1997). In Brazil, this period was characterized by the strengthening of corporate governance mechanisms which, together with economic growth and the supply of international capital, led a wave of IPOs of companies. De 2008 a 2009, the period of global financial crisis, this relationship suffers a slight increase. Despite the vast literature on the subject, studies regarding the evolution of the sensitivity of investment to cash flow in time.This work aims to fill this gap for Brazil and Argentina.

Em mercados imperfeitos e ineficientes, eventuais problemas de agência e de assimetria de informações podem elevar o custo do financiamento externo e, consequentemente, provocar racionamento quantitativo do crédito, expondo as empresas a diferentes graus de restrição financeira. Assim, as decisões de investimento corporativo tendem a depender da disponibilidade de recursos gerados internamente, supostamente mais baratos e acessíveis, e do grau de acesso às fontes de recursos externos. Sob tais condições, boas práticas de governança corporativa são capazes de minimizar os impactos dessas restrições financeiras, uma vez que quanto maior a qualidade da governança, menores os impactos da assimetria informacional e dos conflitos de agência e, portanto, maior a capacidade da empresa em atrair recursos externos com custos mais baixos. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a sensibilidade do investimento ao fluxo de caixa para empresas brasileiras com diferentes graus de restrição financeira conforme o nível de qualidade das suas práticas de governança corporativa durante o período de 2006 a 2015. Para isso, foram analisados dados em painel de 248 companhias brasileiras abertas, as quais foram classificadas a priori em dois grupos conforme o grau de restrição financeira (alto e baixo). Para essa classificação, foi utilizado como critério o Índice de Práticas de Governança Corporativa (IPGC) de Leal (2014), revisado e atualizado a partir de Carvalhal-da-Silva e Leal (2005). O IPGC é construído a partir de questionário objetivo e até o momento não foi utilizado no Brasil para este fim. Considerando-se os objetivos da governança corporativa de mitigação dos impactos dos problemas de agência e de assimetria de informações, maiores (menores) índices retrataram empresas com baixo (alto) grau de restrição financeira. Um modelo de investimento foi estimado pelo método GMM (Generalized Method of Moments) a fim de verificar o impacto das práticas de governança corporativa e do grau de restrição financeira sobre a sensibilidade investimento-fluxo de caixa. Os resultados demonstraram que o IPGC foi negativamente correlacionado com os índices de restrição financeira KZ e WW e que empresas com pior governança tiveram índices de restrição financeira maiores do que aquelas com melhor governança. Além disso, a qualidade da governança corporativa influenciou sensibilidade investimento-fluxo de caixa, sendo essa sensibilidade negativa e significativa apenas para as empresas com pior governança, classificadas a priori com alto grau de restrição financeira. Os resultados sugerem ainda que a sensibilidade negativa do investimento ao fluxo de caixa decorre não somente da pior qualidade das práticas de governança, mas também da possível fragilidade do status financeiro dessas empresas. Adicionalmente, considerando o debate existente na literatura sobre a dificuldade de se determinar adequadamente o grau de restrição financeira de uma dada empresa, o IPGC se mostrou uma variável interessante como método de classificação a priori das empresas e um importante determinante da sensibilidade investimento-fluxo de caixa para identificar firmas possivelmente restritas financeiramente. / Considering imperfect and inefficient markets, possible agency and information asymmetry problems can raise the cost of external financing and, consequently, cause quantitative rationing of credit, exposing companies to different degrees of financial constraint. Thus, corporate investment decisions tend to depend on the availability of supposedly cheaper and accessible internally generated funds and the degree of access to external resource sources. Under such conditions, good corporate governance practices are capable of minimizing the impacts of these financial constraints, since the higher the quality of governance the smaller the impacts of information asymmetry and agency conflicts, and therefore, higher the company\'s capability of attracting external resources at lower costs. The present study aimed to investigate the investment-cash flow sensitivity for Brazilian companies with different degrees of financial constraint according to the quality level of their corporate governance practices from 2006 to 2015. For this purpose, a panel data of 248 Brazilian publicly traded companies was analyzed. These companies were a priori classified in two groups according to the degree of financial constraint (high and low). For this classification, the Corporate Governance Practices Index (IPGC) of Leal (2014), revised and updated from Carvalhal-da-Silva and Leal (2005), was used as a criterion. The IPGC is constructed from an objective questionnaire and so far it has not been used in Brazil for this purpose. Considering the objectives of corporate governance to mitigate the impact of agency problems and information asymmetry, higher (lower) indices portrayed companies with low (high) degree of financial constraint. An investment model was estimated through GMM (Generalized Method of Moments) in order to verify the impact of corporate governance practices and the degree of financial constraint on investment-cash sensitivity. The results showed that the IPGC is negatively correlated with KZ and WW financial constraint indices, and that companies with poor governance generally have higher financial constraint indices than those with good governance. The results also showed that the quality of corporate governance influences the investment-cash flow sensitivity, and this sensitivity is negative and significant only for companies with poor governance, a priori classified with a high degree of financial constraint. The results also suggest that the negative sensitivity of the investment to the cash flow stems not only from the poor quality of governance practices, but also from the possible fragility of the financial status of these companies. Considering the existing debate in the literature on the difficulty of adequately determining the degree of financial constraint of a given firm, the IPGC proved to be an interesting variable as a method of a priori classification of companies and an important determinant of the investment-cash flow sensitivity to identify potentially financially constrained firms.

In this study, we analyze the impact of financial development and market conditions on investment-cash flow sensitivity during the 2006-2014 for 76 countries. First, the results show a relationship between investment-cash flow sensitivity and an index of financial development and its components. Second, 68 countries are affected by the 2008-2009 financial crisis, but only 16 countries exhibit a higher investment-cash flow sensitivity during the crisis. Third, investment-cash flow sensitivity is lower in countries with a larger primary debt market, while the size of the primary equity market has no impact. Finally, analyzing investment-cash flow sensitivity over time, we find lower sensitivity during years associated with higher primary debt market activity. / Neste estudo, analisamos o impacto do desenvolvimento financeiro e das condições de mercado sobre a relação fluxo de caixa-investimento (\"investment-cash flow sensitivity\") para 76 países no período de 2006 a 2014. Primeiro, os resultados mostram que existe relação entre \"investment-cash flow sensitivity\" e o indicador de desenvolvimento financeiro e seus componentes. Segundo, 68 países são afetados pela crise financeira de 2008-2009, mas apenas 16 países apresentam um incremento da relação fluxo de caixa-investimento durante o período de crise. Terceiro, a relação fluxo de caixa-investimento decresce em países com maiores mercados de títulos de dívidas, enquanto o mercado acionário não apresenta efeito sobre o coeficiente. Por fim, ao analisar a relação fluxo de caixa-investimento no tempo, encontramos que o coeficiente decresce na presença de maior atividade de emissões de títulos de dívidas por parte das empresas.

In this study, we analyze the impact of financial development and market conditions on investment-cash flow sensitivity during the 2006-2014 for 76 countries. First, the results show a relationship between investment-cash flow sensitivity and an index of financial development and its components. Second, 68 countries are affected by the 2008-2009 financial crisis, but only 16 countries exhibit a higher investment-cash flow sensitivity during the crisis. Third, investment-cash flow sensitivity is lower in countries with a larger primary debt market, while the size of the primary equity market has no impact. Finally, analyzing investment-cash flow sensitivity over time, we find lower sensitivity during years associated with higher primary debt market activity. / Neste estudo, analisamos o impacto do desenvolvimento financeiro e das condições de mercado sobre a relação fluxo de caixa-investimento (\"investment-cash flow sensitivity\") para 76 países no período de 2006 a 2014. Primeiro, os resultados mostram que existe relação entre \"investment-cash flow sensitivity\" e o indicador de desenvolvimento financeiro e seus componentes. Segundo, 68 países são afetados pela crise financeira de 2008-2009, mas apenas 16 países apresentam um incremento da relação fluxo de caixa-investimento durante o período de crise. Terceiro, a relação fluxo de caixa-investimento decresce em países com maiores mercados de títulos de dívidas, enquanto o mercado acionário não apresenta efeito sobre o coeficiente. Por fim, ao analisar a relação fluxo de caixa-investimento no tempo, encontramos que o coeficiente decresce na presença de maior atividade de emissões de títulos de dívidas por parte das empresas.

Em mercados imperfeitos e ineficientes, eventuais problemas de agência e de assimetria de informações podem elevar o custo do financiamento externo e, consequentemente, provocar racionamento quantitativo do crédito, expondo as empresas a diferentes graus de restrição financeira. Assim, as decisões de investimento corporativo tendem a depender da disponibilidade de recursos gerados internamente, supostamente mais baratos e acessíveis, e do grau de acesso às fontes de recursos externos. Sob tais condições, boas práticas de governança corporativa são capazes de minimizar os impactos dessas restrições financeiras, uma vez que quanto maior a qualidade da governança, menores os impactos da assimetria informacional e dos conflitos de agência e, portanto, maior a capacidade da empresa em atrair recursos externos com custos mais baixos. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a sensibilidade do investimento ao fluxo de caixa para empresas brasileiras com diferentes graus de restrição financeira conforme o nível de qualidade das suas práticas de governança corporativa durante o período de 2006 a 2015. Para isso, foram analisados dados em painel de 248 companhias brasileiras abertas, as quais foram classificadas a priori em dois grupos conforme o grau de restrição financeira (alto e baixo). Para essa classificação, foi utilizado como critério o Índice de Práticas de Governança Corporativa (IPGC) de Leal (2014), revisado e atualizado a partir de Carvalhal-da-Silva e Leal (2005). O IPGC é construído a partir de questionário objetivo e até o momento não foi utilizado no Brasil para este fim. Considerando-se os objetivos da governança corporativa de mitigação dos impactos dos problemas de agência e de assimetria de informações, maiores (menores) índices retrataram empresas com baixo (alto) grau de restrição financeira. Um modelo de investimento foi estimado pelo método GMM (Generalized Method of Moments) a fim de verificar o impacto das práticas de governança corporativa e do grau de restrição financeira sobre a sensibilidade investimento-fluxo de caixa. Os resultados demonstraram que o IPGC foi negativamente correlacionado com os índices de restrição financeira KZ e WW e que empresas com pior governança tiveram índices de restrição financeira maiores do que aquelas com melhor governança. Além disso, a qualidade da governança corporativa influenciou sensibilidade investimento-fluxo de caixa, sendo essa sensibilidade negativa e significativa apenas para as empresas com pior governança, classificadas a priori com alto grau de restrição financeira. Os resultados sugerem ainda que a sensibilidade negativa do investimento ao fluxo de caixa decorre não somente da pior qualidade das práticas de governança, mas também da possível fragilidade do status financeiro dessas empresas. Adicionalmente, considerando o debate existente na literatura sobre a dificuldade de se determinar adequadamente o grau de restrição financeira de uma dada empresa, o IPGC se mostrou uma variável interessante como método de classificação a priori das empresas e um importante determinante da sensibilidade investimento-fluxo de caixa para identificar firmas possivelmente restritas financeiramente. / Considering imperfect and inefficient markets, possible agency and information asymmetry problems can raise the cost of external financing and, consequently, cause quantitative rationing of credit, exposing companies to different degrees of financial constraint. Thus, corporate investment decisions tend to depend on the availability of supposedly cheaper and accessible internally generated funds and the degree of access to external resource sources. Under such conditions, good corporate governance practices are capable of minimizing the impacts of these financial constraints, since the higher the quality of governance the smaller the impacts of information asymmetry and agency conflicts, and therefore, higher the company\'s capability of attracting external resources at lower costs. The present study aimed to investigate the investment-cash flow sensitivity for Brazilian companies with different degrees of financial constraint according to the quality level of their corporate governance practices from 2006 to 2015. For this purpose, a panel data of 248 Brazilian publicly traded companies was analyzed. These companies were a priori classified in two groups according to the degree of financial constraint (high and low). For this classification, the Corporate Governance Practices Index (IPGC) of Leal (2014), revised and updated from Carvalhal-da-Silva and Leal (2005), was used as a criterion. The IPGC is constructed from an objective questionnaire and so far it has not been used in Brazil for this purpose. Considering the objectives of corporate governance to mitigate the impact of agency problems and information asymmetry, higher (lower) indices portrayed companies with low (high) degree of financial constraint. An investment model was estimated through GMM (Generalized Method of Moments) in order to verify the impact of corporate governance practices and the degree of financial constraint on investment-cash sensitivity. The results showed that the IPGC is negatively correlated with KZ and WW financial constraint indices, and that companies with poor governance generally have higher financial constraint indices than those with good governance. The results also showed that the quality of corporate governance influences the investment-cash flow sensitivity, and this sensitivity is negative and significant only for companies with poor governance, a priori classified with a high degree of financial constraint. The results also suggest that the negative sensitivity of the investment to the cash flow stems not only from the poor quality of governance practices, but also from the possible fragility of the financial status of these companies. Considering the existing debate in the literature on the difficulty of adequately determining the degree of financial constraint of a given firm, the IPGC proved to be an interesting variable as a method of a priori classification of companies and an important determinant of the investment-cash flow sensitivity to identify potentially financially constrained firms.