No presente trabalho são apresentados resultados referentes ao primeiro coeficiente Townsend de ionização (α) no isobutano puro, para a faixa de campo elétrico reduzido (E/N) de 145 até194 Td. A configuração do aparato experimental consiste de uma configuração semelhante a uma RPC, com o anodo constituído por um vidro de elevada resistividade (2 x 1012 Ωcm) e um catodo metálico, ligado diretamente a um eletrômetro, onde fotoelétrons são produzidos pela incidência de um feixe de laser pulsado. O coeficiente α é determinado por meio da medição da corrente elétrica em regime de ionização primária e em regime de avalanche. Uma vez que, para o isobutano puro não há valores experimentais disponíveis na literatura, para a faixa de E/N analisada por este trabalho, os valores obtidos foram comparados com os resultados da simulação Magboltz 2. Os estudos incluíram a determinação do coeficiente α para diferentes taxas de repetição e intensidades do feixe de laser. Como a relação entre a carga rápida e a total relaciona-se com o primeiro coeficiente de Townsend, estudos relativos à contribuição iônica e eletrônica para a corrente média também foram realizados. Como existem poucos resultados disponíveis na literatura referentes às secções de choque de colisão e parâmetros de transporte para o isobutano é comum considerar os resultados de seu isômero estrutural: o n-butano. Assim, a fim de realizar uma análise comparativa, o coeficiente α foi determinado também para o n-butano. / In the present work, results concerning the first Townsend ionization coefficient (α) in pure isobutane within the density-normalized electric field (E/N) range of 145 to 194 Td are presented. The experimental setup consists of RPC-like cell with the anode made of a high resistivity glass (2 x 1012 Ωcm) and a metallic cathode, directly connected to an electrometer, on which photoelectrons are produced by the incidence of a pulsed laser beam. The α coefficient is determined by measuring the current under primary ionization and avalanche regime. Since for the E/N range covered by this work, there are no experimental values for pure isobutane available in the literature, the obtained values were compared with Magboltz 2 results. Our studies included the determination of α coefficient for different repetition rates and laser beam intensity. The ratio of the fast charge to the total charge is related to the first Townsend coefficient, so studies concerning the ionic and the electronic contribution to the average current were also performed. Since there are few results available in the literature for isobutane, concerning collisional cross section and electron transport parameters, is common to consider results from its structural isomer: n-butane. Thus, in order to perform a comparative analysis, the coefficient α was also determined for n-butane.

No presente trabalho são apresentados resultados referentes ao primeiro coeficiente Townsend de ionização (α) no isobutano puro, para a faixa de campo elétrico reduzido (E/N) de 145 até194 Td. A configuração do aparato experimental consiste de uma configuração semelhante a uma RPC, com o anodo constituído por um vidro de elevada resistividade (2 x 1012 Ωcm) e um catodo metálico, ligado diretamente a um eletrômetro, onde fotoelétrons são produzidos pela incidência de um feixe de laser pulsado. O coeficiente α é determinado por meio da medição da corrente elétrica em regime de ionização primária e em regime de avalanche. Uma vez que, para o isobutano puro não há valores experimentais disponíveis na literatura, para a faixa de E/N analisada por este trabalho, os valores obtidos foram comparados com os resultados da simulação Magboltz 2. Os estudos incluíram a determinação do coeficiente α para diferentes taxas de repetição e intensidades do feixe de laser. Como a relação entre a carga rápida e a total relaciona-se com o primeiro coeficiente de Townsend, estudos relativos à contribuição iônica e eletrônica para a corrente média também foram realizados. Como existem poucos resultados disponíveis na literatura referentes às secções de choque de colisão e parâmetros de transporte para o isobutano é comum considerar os resultados de seu isômero estrutural: o n-butano. Assim, a fim de realizar uma análise comparativa, o coeficiente α foi determinado também para o n-butano. / In the present work, results concerning the first Townsend ionization coefficient (α) in pure isobutane within the density-normalized electric field (E/N) range of 145 to 194 Td are presented. The experimental setup consists of RPC-like cell with the anode made of a high resistivity glass (2 x 1012 Ωcm) and a metallic cathode, directly connected to an electrometer, on which photoelectrons are produced by the incidence of a pulsed laser beam. The α coefficient is determined by measuring the current under primary ionization and avalanche regime. Since for the E/N range covered by this work, there are no experimental values for pure isobutane available in the literature, the obtained values were compared with Magboltz 2 results. Our studies included the determination of α coefficient for different repetition rates and laser beam intensity. The ratio of the fast charge to the total charge is related to the first Townsend coefficient, so studies concerning the ionic and the electronic contribution to the average current were also performed. Since there are few results available in the literature for isobutane, concerning collisional cross section and electron transport parameters, is common to consider results from its structural isomer: n-butane. Thus, in order to perform a comparative analysis, the coefficient α was also determined for n-butane.

<p dir="ltr">This dissertation reports experiments and simulations of micro-/nanoscale electrical breakdown, connects them to the microscale breakdown theories, relates them to field emission and space-charge-limited conditions, and demonstrates the modification of the approach to microwave fields. It provides the first comprehensive experimental assessment of the transitions between electron emission and gas breakdown mechanisms at microscale and nanoscale and extension of semi-empirical laws for ionization process in DC and microwave. These findings will be valuable in developing theories to predict electron emission and gas breakdown mechanisms, which provides guidance for nanoscale device design.</p>

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第22447号 / 工博第4708号 / 新制||工||1735(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科電子工学専攻 / (主査)教授 木本 恒暢, 教授 山田 啓文, 准教授 船戸 充 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DFAM

Microdosímetros gasosos geralmente empregam uma mistura gasosa equivalente ao tecido humano mole (Tissue-equivalent Gas TEG), composta de um hidrocarboneto, dióxido de carbono e nitrogênio, de forma que o poder de freamento na mistura e no tecido sejam semelhantes. Entretanto, independentemente do hidrocarboneto adotado, dados tanto teóricos como experimentais do primeiro coeficiente de Townsend de ionização (&alpha;) nestas misturas são raros, ainda que a primeira TEG, cujo metano é o gás majoritário, tenha sido proposta em 1956 por Rossi e Failla e continue sendo amplamente utilizada. Neste trabalho, dados do parâmetro &alpha; em TEGs baseadas no metano (CH4 64,4%, CO2 32,4% e N2 3,2%) e nos isômeros do butano (C4H10 51,4%, CO2 42,3% e N2 6,3%) são apresentados pela primeira vez em geometria planar para a faixa de campo elétrico normalizado pela densidade do gás (E/N) entre 100 290 Td (1 Td = 10-21 V.m2). O método de medidas adotado baseia-se na técnica de Townsend pulsada, onde o primeiro coeficiente de Townsend pode ser determinando comparando a corrente elétrica no regime de avalanche e a corrente de ionização primária gerada pela incidência de um feixe de laser de nitrogênio em um eletrodo metálico (catodo) de uma câmara de geometria planar, sendo o anodo um eletrodo de alta resistividade (&rho;=2×1010&Omega;.m). O aparato experimental, até então operado apenas em pressão atmosférica, foi modificado para também trabalhar em baixa pressão (120 hPa), de modo a aumentar a faixa de E/N investigada. A validação do método e das alterações do sistema de detecção foi realizada utilizando os três gases componentes das TEGs cujos parâmetros de transporte são amplamente estudados: o nitrogênio, o dióxido de carbono e o metano. Observou-se que o parâmetro na TEG com metano assemelha-se com os valores determinados para o metano puro. Na TEG baseada no isobutano, ele é compatível com o primeiro coeficiente de Townsend do dióxido de carbono para campos acima de 170 Td. Já o parâmetro na mistura com n-butano é intermediário entre os valores obtidos para o dióxido de carbono e o nitrogênio. Os resultados experimentais, disponíveis em forma tabular, foram comparados com os simulados utilizando o programa Magboltz 2, evidenciando boa concordância dentro da incerteza experimental. / Gaseous microdosimeters usually employ a Tissue-equivalent Gas (TEG), made of a hydrocarbon, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, in order to make similar the stopping power in this mixture and in the human soft tissue. Notwithstanding, regardless the chosen hydrocarbon, both theoretical and experimental data on the first Townsend ionization coefficient (&alpha;) in this mixtures are rare, even though the first TEG, which methane is the most abundant gas, was proposed in 1956 by Rossi and Failla and it has been widely employed since then. In this work, data on the parameter &alpha; in TEGs based on methane (CH4 64.4%, CO2 32.4%, and N2 3.2%) and butanes isomers (C4H10 51.4%, CO2 42.3% e N2 6.3%) are presented for the first time in planar geometry in the gas density-normalized electric field (E/N) range between 100 290 Td (1 Td = 10-21 V.m2). The adopted method is based on the Pulsed Townsend Technique, where the first Townsend coefficient can be determined by comparing the electric current in the avalanche mode and the primary ionization current, produced by an nitrogen laser beam incidence in a metallic electrode (cathode) of a parallel plate chamber, which the anode is a resistive electrode (&rho;=2×1010&Omega;.m). The experimental setup, previously operated only at atmospheric pressure, was adapted to work also at low pressure (120 hPa), in order to increase the investigated E/N range. The validation of both method and detection system modifications was made by employing three TEGs components, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and methane, whose transport parameters are extensively studied. The parameter in the methane-based TEG follows the behavior observed in pure methane. In the isobutane-based TEG, it is compatible with the first Townsend coefficient in carbon dioxide for E/N above 170 Td. The parameter in the n-butane-based TEG lies between the obtained values of in carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The experimental results, included in tabular form, agree with those from Magboltz 2 simulations within the experimental uncertainties.

Microdosímetros gasosos geralmente empregam uma mistura gasosa equivalente ao tecido humano mole (Tissue-equivalent Gas TEG), composta de um hidrocarboneto, dióxido de carbono e nitrogênio, de forma que o poder de freamento na mistura e no tecido sejam semelhantes. Entretanto, independentemente do hidrocarboneto adotado, dados tanto teóricos como experimentais do primeiro coeficiente de Townsend de ionização (&alpha;) nestas misturas são raros, ainda que a primeira TEG, cujo metano é o gás majoritário, tenha sido proposta em 1956 por Rossi e Failla e continue sendo amplamente utilizada. Neste trabalho, dados do parâmetro &alpha; em TEGs baseadas no metano (CH4 64,4%, CO2 32,4% e N2 3,2%) e nos isômeros do butano (C4H10 51,4%, CO2 42,3% e N2 6,3%) são apresentados pela primeira vez em geometria planar para a faixa de campo elétrico normalizado pela densidade do gás (E/N) entre 100 290 Td (1 Td = 10-21 V.m2). O método de medidas adotado baseia-se na técnica de Townsend pulsada, onde o primeiro coeficiente de Townsend pode ser determinando comparando a corrente elétrica no regime de avalanche e a corrente de ionização primária gerada pela incidência de um feixe de laser de nitrogênio em um eletrodo metálico (catodo) de uma câmara de geometria planar, sendo o anodo um eletrodo de alta resistividade (&rho;=2×1010&Omega;.m). O aparato experimental, até então operado apenas em pressão atmosférica, foi modificado para também trabalhar em baixa pressão (120 hPa), de modo a aumentar a faixa de E/N investigada. A validação do método e das alterações do sistema de detecção foi realizada utilizando os três gases componentes das TEGs cujos parâmetros de transporte são amplamente estudados: o nitrogênio, o dióxido de carbono e o metano. Observou-se que o parâmetro na TEG com metano assemelha-se com os valores determinados para o metano puro. Na TEG baseada no isobutano, ele é compatível com o primeiro coeficiente de Townsend do dióxido de carbono para campos acima de 170 Td. Já o parâmetro na mistura com n-butano é intermediário entre os valores obtidos para o dióxido de carbono e o nitrogênio. Os resultados experimentais, disponíveis em forma tabular, foram comparados com os simulados utilizando o programa Magboltz 2, evidenciando boa concordância dentro da incerteza experimental. / Gaseous microdosimeters usually employ a Tissue-equivalent Gas (TEG), made of a hydrocarbon, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, in order to make similar the stopping power in this mixture and in the human soft tissue. Notwithstanding, regardless the chosen hydrocarbon, both theoretical and experimental data on the first Townsend ionization coefficient (&alpha;) in this mixtures are rare, even though the first TEG, which methane is the most abundant gas, was proposed in 1956 by Rossi and Failla and it has been widely employed since then. In this work, data on the parameter &alpha; in TEGs based on methane (CH4 64.4%, CO2 32.4%, and N2 3.2%) and butanes isomers (C4H10 51.4%, CO2 42.3% e N2 6.3%) are presented for the first time in planar geometry in the gas density-normalized electric field (E/N) range between 100 290 Td (1 Td = 10-21 V.m2). The adopted method is based on the Pulsed Townsend Technique, where the first Townsend coefficient can be determined by comparing the electric current in the avalanche mode and the primary ionization current, produced by an nitrogen laser beam incidence in a metallic electrode (cathode) of a parallel plate chamber, which the anode is a resistive electrode (&rho;=2×1010&Omega;.m). The experimental setup, previously operated only at atmospheric pressure, was adapted to work also at low pressure (120 hPa), in order to increase the investigated E/N range. The validation of both method and detection system modifications was made by employing three TEGs components, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and methane, whose transport parameters are extensively studied. The parameter in the methane-based TEG follows the behavior observed in pure methane. In the isobutane-based TEG, it is compatible with the first Townsend coefficient in carbon dioxide for E/N above 170 Td. The parameter in the n-butane-based TEG lies between the obtained values of in carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The experimental results, included in tabular form, agree with those from Magboltz 2 simulations within the experimental uncertainties.

Dans l’état actuel des techniques utilisées pour l’isolation gazeuse des systèmes d’énergie électrique à haute tension, l’hexafluorure de soufre (SF6) tient une place prépondérante en raison de ses performances diélectriques et chimiques (bonne tenue diélectrique, point d'ébullition bas, stabilité chimique, non toxicité, etc.) ; il est l’un des meilleurs isolants gazeux connus à ce jour. Il est principalement utilisé dans les appareils de coupure pour l’extinction de l’arc électrique, les lignes de transmission à isolation gazeuse et autres équipements de puissance. Cependant, de par sa taille excessive, sa durée de vie trop importante et son grand effet radiatif, la molécule de SF6 constitue un agent aggravant de l’effet de serre avec un potentiel de réchauffement global (PRG ou GWP en anglais) très élevé (23900 fois supérieur à celui du CO2). Ainsi, les recommandations internationales (COP3) et européennes (règlement (UE) n°517/2014) tendent à restreindre très fortement, voire interdire son utilisation pour préserver l’environnement. Depuis, une tâche importante a été engagée par les industriels pour trouver d’autres gaz ou mélanges de substitution avec moins d’impact sur l’environnement et des exigences diélectriques comparables ou supérieures à celles du SF6. Les candidats les plus prometteurs appartiennent tous au groupe des molécules poly-fluorées (CF3I, Perfluorinated Ketones, Octafluorotetra-hydrofuran, Hydrofluoroolefin (HFOs) ou heptafluoro-iso-butyronitrile(Fluoronitriles)), Ils offrent tous une tenue diélectrique entre 1.2 et 2.71 par rapport au SF6. Ces molécules candidates ouvrent des perspectives intéressantes pour la substitution de SF6 dans l’appareillage sous enveloppe métallique destiné pour le réseau T&D haute tension. Leur principal inconvénient réside dans leur masse moléculaire élevée, ce qui implique une température de fonctionnement plus élevée par rapport au SF6. Ce travail porte sur l’étude expérimentale des performances diélectriques des mélanges de Fluoronitriles-CO2. Les paramètres intrinsèques de l’avalanche électronique sont identifiés à partir des courants de la décharge stationnaire de Townsend. L’évaluation de ces courants a permis d’extraire le coefficient d’ionisation effectif pour différents mélanges de Fluoronitriles. Une comparaison du potentiel d’isolation de ces mélanges avec celui du SF6 pur, dans différentes géométries électrodes (sphère-plan, pointe-plan, sphère-sphère, système avec le profil de Bruce), sur une large gamme de pression et pour toutes les formes d'ondes de tension normalisées pour d'isolation est présentée. Les résultats de mesures de tensions de claquage de ces mélanges et du CO2 pur, pour comparaison, dans un système coaxial cylindrique de taille réelle, similaire à celui utilisé dans les postes à enveloppe métallique (GIS - Gas Insulated Switchgear), sont également présentés ; une étude de l’influence de la surface et de l’état de surface des électrodes sur la tenue diélectrique en fonction de différents paramètres (pression, rugosité, surface effective, forme de tension et polarité, température de gaz …) est faite. / SULPHUR hexafluoride, SF6, is the most common compressed gas used in high voltage power equipment since the 1950s and in HV transmissions and substations applications (GIS, GCB, GIL …), SF6 holds a prominent place because of its dielectric and chemical performance (high dielectric strength, non-toxicity, low condensation temperature, thermal stability, non-flammability, chemical inactivity with the other constituent materials of the apparatus, availability and moderate cost). It is one of the best insulators gas known today. Despite its excellent properties in both electrical insulation and current interruption performance, the excessive size, the radiative effect and atmospheric lifetime of SF6 molecule makes this gas an aggravating agent for the greenhouse gas effect, with a very high global warming potential (GWP) (23900 times higher than CO2). Thus, the international and European recommendations (COP 3) and (Regulation (EU) No 517/2014) respectively tend to strongly restrict or prohibit its use to preserve the environment. Since then, an important task was undertaken by manufacturers to find other gases or mixtures of substitution with less impact on the environment and dielectric performances comparable or superior to those of SF6. Naturally, the investigations were oriented towards halogenated products that have reduced GWP such as CF3I, Perfluorinated Ketones, Octafluorotetra-hydrofuran, Hydrofluoroolefin (HFOs) or heptafluoro-iso-butyronitrile (Fluoronitriles)), all offer a dielectric strength between 1.2 and 2.71 relative to SF6. These candidates open interesting perspectives for the substitution of SF6 in the GIS applications designed for high voltage T & D network. Their main disadvantage is their high molecular weight, which implies a higher operating temperature compared to SF6. This work deals with the experimental study of dielectric performance of Fluoronitriles CO2 mixtures. Intrinsic parameters of the measured steady state Townsend swarm currents are identified. The evaluation of the currents produce the effective ionization rate constant in different Fluoronitriles-CO2 mixtures. In addition, this work provides a conventional assessing of insulating performance with typical breakdown experiments, conducted for different field configurations over a wide pressure range and for all standard voltage waveforms. The experiments are conducted with different electrodes geometries namely plane-to-plane (Bruce profile), sphere-to-sphere, sphere-to-plane and rod-to-plane. AC and LI breakdown characteristics of CO2 and different Fluoronitriles /CO2 mixtures gas were experimentally analyzed in a real scale GIS coaxial test system. The main investigated parameters are the effect of roughness and effective surface area HV inner conductor on insulation performance, depending on various parameters (pressure, form and voltage polarity, gas temperature…).

Le carbure de silicium (SiC) possède plusieurs propriétés exceptionnelles comme une large bande interdite, un champ électrique critique et une vitesse de saturation des porteurs élevée pour remplacer le silicium (Si) dans des domaines de fonctionnement jusque-là inaccessibles avec le Si. Un nombre important de démonstrateurs des composants de puissance en SiC faisant état de performances remarquables ainsi que la disponibilité commerciale des composants en SiC confirment la maturité de la filière SiC et montrent les progrès technologiques réalisés au cours des dernières années. Cependant, il existe peu d’études sur les coefficients d’ionisation du SiC, lesquels sont pourtant indispensables pour prévoir précisément la tenue en tension des composants de puissance en SiC. Ce travail contribue donc à mieux déterminer ces coefficients. Pour cela, un bon nombre de diodes spécialement conçues pour la détermination des coefficients d’ionisation du SiC par la technique OBIC (Optical Beam Induced Current) ont été réalisées sur différents wafers de SiC-4H et de SiC-6H, deux polytypes courant du SiC. Cette technique repose sur un faisceau de laser ultraviolet qui génère des paires électrons-trous dans la zone de charge d’espace d’une diode sous test. La mesure du courant résultant permet d’accéder aux coefficients d’ionisation. A partir des mesures OBIC sur les diodes réalisées, nous avons pu déduire les coefficients pour ces deux polytypes du SiC. Plus particulièrement, les coefficients d’ionisation du SiC-4H sont déterminés dans une large gamme de champ électrique grâce aux mesures sur les différents dopages. Les paramètres des coefficients déterminés dans ce travail peuvent être utilisés en conception de dispositifs haute tension pour prédire plus précisément l’efficacité de leur protection périphérique. / Silicon carbide (SiC) has several exceptional properties as a wide band-gap, a high critical electric field and a high saturation velocity of carriers to replace silicon (Si) in the applications previously inaccessible with Si. A significant number of SiC power devices showing outstanding performances and the commercial availability of SiC devices confirm the maturity of SiC industry and show the SiC technological advances in recent years. However, there are few studies on the ionization coefficients in SiC, which nevertheless essential to accurately predict the breakdown voltage of SiC power devices. This work contributes to better determine these coefficients. For this, numerous diodes which are specifically designed for the determination of ionization coefficients in SiC by using OBIC (Optical Beam Induced Current) technique were realized on different wafers of 4H-SiC and 6H-SiC, two usual polytypes of SiC. This technique relies on an ultraviolet laser beam which generates electron-hole pairs in the space charge region of a diode under test. The resulting current measurement provides access to the ionization coefficients. From OBIC measurements performed on the diodes, we were able to deduce the ionization coefficients for the both polytypes of SiC. In particular, the ionization coefficients for 4H-SiC are determined in a wide range of electric field through measurements on devices with different doping level. The parameters of ionization coefficients determined in this work can be used in design of high voltage devices to predict more accurately the efficiency of periphery protections.