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The absorption of iron from the diet is a major determinant of the iron status of an individual. Accurate measures of iron absorption are thus essential in the determination of the effects of diet composition on iron absorption and status. The aim of these studies have firstly been to investigate different methods to measure iron absorption and effects of diet in both rats and humans. Secondly to describe variations in iron status in a general population and to relate the variations to diet. Experimental studies in rats: The most important factors determining the availability of iron from the diet to growing rats appears to be the concentration of iron in the diet and the iron status of the rats. The type of cereal |rain in the diet and the diet phytate and fiber concentrations were of far less importance. The absorption of Fe from test meals, the iron balance over a period of a few days and the blood hemoglobin and serum and liver iron concentrations were in good general agreement on the effects of diet and iron status on the bioavailability of iron from grain diets. The extent of coprophagy in rats is not affected by diet or iron status and did not affect iron absorption appreciably. Effect of dairy products on iron absorption in man: The effect of milk and fermented milk on iron absorption was studied in nine ileostomy subjects. We found no decrease in iron absorption during two three-week periods on a high calcium (milk) diet. The results of the present study differ from those studies in which the absorption of radioiron from test meals was measured, which have shown a pronounced effect of high calcium levels. We believe that these differences in results were caused by differences in experimental design and choice of measurement method. Our results support earlier findings that the iron status of the subject rather than the bioavailability of dietary iron is the major factor determining absorption of dietary non-heme iron. Measurement of iron absorption from single meals and daily diets in humans using radioiron: Ten ileostomy subjects were given the same composite diet for all three meals each day for five consecutive days (meal proportion ratio 1:2:4 for breakfast, lunch and dinner respectively). The iron absorption from a low-fiber diet measured from the morning meals (55Fe) was almost 80% higher than the average iron absorption measured from all meals (59Fe) during the last two days on this diet. The iron absorption from a high fiber diet eaten at breakfast was almost 50% higher than the daily average absorption. This suggests that all meals of the day should be labeled with radioiron and not just the morning meal. Population studies of diet and iron status: In a randomly selected population in Northern Sweden lower iron status was associated with a high intake of dairy products in women (25-44 yr.). The striking result was however that iron status was not related to other major variations in dietary intake, particularly intake of energy and iron. No correlation could be demonstrated between iron status measured as ferritin, serum iron or TIBC and the estimated intakes of calcium, fiber, ascorbic acid, meat, tea or coffee, all of which are known to be factors which influence the bioavailability of iron. On the population level, factors other than diet, e.g. menstruation and metabolic factors, were more important than diet as determinants of iron status. / <p>S. 1-62: sammanfattning, s. 67-157: 6 uppsatser</p> / digitalisering@umu

Studies were undertaken to investigate if gastric acidity and iron chelation to a meat component enhance nonheme iron absorption. Cereal meals, with and without added proteins, were gavaged into iron-deficient rats. The role of iron chelation was investigated by adding sodium phytate, an iron chelator implicated with decreased iron absorption, to the meals. The role of gastric acidity was investigated by treating the rats with cimetidine, which inhibits gastric acid production. In rats with normal acid production, beef, pork and chicken enhanced iron absorption when phytate had been added to the meals, suggesting a role for chelation in meat enhancement of iron absorption. However, the enhancement by beef and pork was insignificant in cimetidine-treated rats given the cereal + phytate meals, indicating that gastric acid production also plays a role in meat enhancement of iron absorption. Fish and egg white were sometimes inhibitory to iron absorption and, therefore, did not fit the pattern of enhancement demonstrated by beef, pork, and chicken. In a separate experiment, gastric acidity was not directly altered by the protein source included with cereal meals. No significant effects of the various proteins on iron absorption from cereal + phytate meals were observed in a final experiment involving iron-replete rats. In vitro iron solubilizing capacity of beef, pork, chicken, and egg white was positively correlated with enhanced iron absorption by iron-deficient rats. Studies were performed to 1) investigate if ferric iron bound in complex with iron-solubilizing meat components is absorbable, 2) compare the relative iron-solubilizing capacity of meats, and 3) investigate the physicochemical and compositional characteristics of the meat components responsible for the iron solubilizing capability of meat. Iron-solubilizing components of beef were isolated from pH 2 HCl homogenates into dialysis bags (MWCO, 6-8 K). Radiolabelled iron complexes were then generated using ferric iron and either the ILC (isolated low-molecular-weight components) from undigested beef or ascorbate. The bioavailabilities of radioiron in these complexes or as ferric iron were measured as radioiron absorption into the blood one hour after injection into ligated duodenal loops of rats. Iron absorption values were ascorbate-ferrous complexes > beef ILC-ferric complexes > ferric iron (p < .05). In separate experiments, ILC from 0.1 g of various dietary protein sources (beef, pork, chicken, fish, or egg white) were added to 400 μg ferric iron in pH 2 HCl, the pH raised to 7.2, and soluble iron determined in the supernatant after centrifugation at 2,500 g for 10 min. Iron solubilizing capabilities of ILC were pork > beef > chicken > fish > egg white (p < .05). In a final series of experiments, the compositional and physicochemical characteristics of the ILC from the various dietary proteins were investigated.

[Formulae and special characters can only be approximated here. Please see the pdf version of the abstract for an accurate reproduction.] Iron is vital for almost all living organisms by participating in a wide variety of metabolic processes, including oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, and electron transport. However, iron concentrations in body tissues must be tightly regulated because excessive iron leads to tissue damage, as a result of formation of free radicals. In mammals since no controlled means of eliminating unwanted iron has evolved, body iron balance is maintained by alterations in dietary iron intake. This occurs in the duodenum where most dietary iron is absorbed. Absorption involves at least two steps, uptake of iron from the intestinal lumen and then its transport into the body, processes that occur at the apical and basal membranes of enterocytes, respectively. In chapter one of this thesis the background information relevant to iron absorption is described. Despite numerous studies, the role of these proteins in iron absorption remains unclear, partly because many studies have reported them in non-enterocyte cell lines where the expression of the proteins involved in iron absorption is unlikely and therefore the physiological significance of the findings uncertain. Therefore, the study of iron absorption would value from additional cell lines of intestinal origin being used, preferably derived from a species used to comprehensively study this process in vivo, namely the rat. Validation of such a model would enable comparisons to be made from a molecular level to its relevance in the whole organism. In chapter 3 of this thesis, the rat intestinal cell line 6 (IEC-6) was examined as a model of intestinal iron transport. IEC-6 cells expressed many of the proteins involved in iron absorption, but not the ferrireductase Dcytb, sucrase or αvβ3 integrin. In addition, in IEC-6 cells the expression of the apical transporter divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1), the iron storage protein ferritin, the uptake of Fe(II) and Fe(III) were regulated by cellular iron stores as is seen in vivo. This suggests that IEC-6 cells are of a lower villus enterocyte phenotype. Presented in chapter 4 is the study of the uptake of iron from Fe(II):ascorbate and Fe(III):citrate by IEC-6 cells in the presence of a blocking antibody to the putative basolateral transporter ferroportin1 and of colchicine and vinblastine, different pHs, and over-expression of DMT1. It was shown that optimal Fe(II) uptake required a low extracellular pH and was dependent on DMT1. Uptake of Fe(III) functioned optimally at a neutral pH, did not require surface ferrireduction, and was increased during over-expression of DMT1. These observations suggest that intravesicular ferrireduction takes place before transport of Fe(II) to the cytoplasm by DMT1. This pathway was not blocked by a functional antibody against αvβ3 integrin but was inhibited by competition with unlabeled iron citrate or citrate alone. Surprisingly, a functional antibody against ferroportin1 had no effect on efflux but significantly reduced (p<0.05) uptake of Fe(II) by 40-50% and Fe(III) by 90%, indicating two separate pathways for the uptake of iron from Fe(II)-ascorbate and from Fe(III)-citrate in IEC-6 cells. Presented in chapter 5 is the development and validation of a technique for the removal of freshly isolated enterocytes from the rat duodenum and their use to study iron transport processes that enabled comparisons to be made between these cells, IEC-6 cells and the human enterocyte cell line Caco-2 cells. In chapter 6 a blocking antibody to ferroportin1 was shown to inhibit uptake of Fe(II) but not release of iron in freshly isolated duodenal enterocytes from rats and Caco-2 cells supporting the findings obtained with IEC-6 cells described in chapter 4. Fe(II) uptake was reduced only when the antibody was in contact with the apical membrane indicating its expression at the microvillus membrane. Confirming this, ferroportin1 was shown along the microvillus membrane of Caco-2 cells, in enriched microvillus membrane preparations and in enterocytes of duodenum tissue of rats where it co-localised with lactase. The significant findings to emerge from this thesis are that the IEC-6 cell is a valid model to study iron absorption producing results consistent with those found in freshly isolated enterocytes and in human enterocyte-like cells. In particular, ferroportin1 functions in the uptake of iron at the apical membrane possibly by modulating surface binding of Fe(II) to DMT1 or the activity of DMT1. In addition to this in Fe(II) uptake from Fe(III) ferroportin1 may also affect the number of Fe(III): citrate binding sites. Preliminary studies further characterizing the function of ferroportin1 at the apical membrane and at intracellular sites of IEC-6 cells along with integration of these data are discussed in chapter 7.

Análises de diversidade em feijão comum (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), envolvendo caracteres morfológicos e marcadores moleculares, têm mostrado uma estruturação em dois pools gênicos principais, um Mesoamericano e outro Andino, os quais diferem, dentre vários aspectos, quanto à morfologia e fisiologia do grão. Uma nova abordagem que vem sendo usada para estimar a variabilidade genética entre acessos de feijoeiro é a prospecção de polimorfismos de base única (SNPs), tanto em sequências arbitrárias do genoma quanto em sequências gênicas de interesse. Também, o estudo de sequências nucleotídicas que codificam proteínas importantes, tais como a faseolina e a ferro redutase, codificadas, respectivamente, pelos genes Phs e FRO1, deve permitir a geração de novos e informativos marcadores e promover um melhor entendimento da variação existente em P. vulgaris. Assim, os objetivos deste trabalho foram obter as sequências dos genes - Phs e FRO1, acessar a frequência de SNPs em regiões codantes e não-codantes de ambos os genes, e avaliar a utilidade desses polimorfismos para investigar a diversidade genética em 31 genótipos cultivados de feijão comum e um acesso de P. lunatus. Para tanto, primers específicos foram desenhados e as sequências obtidas foram alinhadas, permitindo a identificação de vários sítios polimórficos. Parâmetros moleculares foram estimados pelo software Arlequin e MEGA. As análises de agrupamento foram conduzidas através do método Neighbor-joining. Foram detectadas 361 bases polimórficas, das quais 260 foram do tipo substituição e 101, indel. A frequência de SNPs em regiões não codantes foi duas vezes maior do que em regiões traduzidas, em ambos os genes; também, a substituições do tipo transição foram mais freqüentes do que as do tipo transversão. Os polimorfismos em regiões codantes levaram à substituição de 17 aminoácidos na proteína faseolina, e 14 na enzima ferro redutase. Tais modificações incluem, na maioria das vezes, alterações de aminoácidos com propriedades similares. Vale destacar que sequência predita de aminoácidos da faseolina exibiu uma diversidade elevada entre os acessos investigados, sendo que alguns desses polimorfismos se prestaram para tipificar alguns acessos. Em contrapartida, a enzima ferro redutase exibiu um padrão de aminoácidos mais homogêneo, principalmente para os acessos andinos. As análises de agrupamento revelaram dois clusters bem definidos: um que agrupou os acessos Mesoamericanos e as cultivares brasileiras, e outro que agrupou os Andinos, sugerindo que sequências gênicas são úteis na distinção dos pools gênicos de Phaseolus. Todavia, os polimorfismos do gene -Phs permitiram uma melhor resolução das relações entre os acessos dentro de cada pool gênico, em comparação com os do gene FRO1. / Diversity analysis in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), based on morphological traits and molecular markers, has revealed the existence of two major gene pools, the Mesoamerican and Andean pools, which differ in several features, including the grain morphology and physiology. A novel approach to estimating genetic variability is in silico mining for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP). Arbitrary genome sequences as well as genic sequences were used for this purpose. Additionally, the investigation of nucleotide sequences that code for important proteins, such as phaseolin and iron-reductase, encoded respectively by the Phs and FRO1 genes, should allow new and informative markers to be generated, helping us to gain a better understanding of intraspecific variation in P. vulgaris. Therefore, the aims of this study were to sequence the -Phs and FRO1 genes, to assess SNP frequencies in coding and non-coding regions of both genes, and to assess the possible use of these polymorphisms for investigating the genetic diversity of 31 cultivated genotypes of common bean and one of P. lunatus. Specific primers were designed and the sequences obtained were aligned, allowing us to identify several polymorphic sites. Molecular parameters were estimated using the Arlequin and MEGA software packages. Cluster analyses were conducted using the neighborjoining method. We detected 361 polymorphic sites, consisting of 260 base substitutions and 101 indels. The frequency of SNPs in non-coding regions was twice the frequency in translated regions in both genes. In addition, the occurrence of base transitions was higher than transversions. Polymorphisms in coding regions lead to 17 amino acid substitutions in the phaseolin protein and 14 in the iron reductase enzyme. Most substitutions of this kind include changes that preserve the respective protein functions. The predicted amino acid sequence of phaseolin exhibited high diversity, and some polymorphisms allowed us to typify some accessions. In contrast, the iron reductase enzyme exhibited a more homogeneous pattern of amino acids, especially in the Andean accessions. Cluster analyses revealed two well-defined clusters, one containing the Mesoamerican accessions with the Brazilian cultivars, and another containing the Andean accessions, suggesting that gene sequences are useful for distinguishing the Phaseolus gene pools. Interestingly, the polymorphisms detected in the -Phs gene allowed better visualization of the relationships between accessions in the same pool, in comparison to FRO1.

Análises de diversidade em feijão comum (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), envolvendo caracteres morfológicos e marcadores moleculares, têm mostrado uma estruturação em dois pools gênicos principais, um Mesoamericano e outro Andino, os quais diferem, dentre vários aspectos, quanto à morfologia e fisiologia do grão. Uma nova abordagem que vem sendo usada para estimar a variabilidade genética entre acessos de feijoeiro é a prospecção de polimorfismos de base única (SNPs), tanto em sequências arbitrárias do genoma quanto em sequências gênicas de interesse. Também, o estudo de sequências nucleotídicas que codificam proteínas importantes, tais como a faseolina e a ferro redutase, codificadas, respectivamente, pelos genes Phs e FRO1, deve permitir a geração de novos e informativos marcadores e promover um melhor entendimento da variação existente em P. vulgaris. Assim, os objetivos deste trabalho foram obter as sequências dos genes - Phs e FRO1, acessar a frequência de SNPs em regiões codantes e não-codantes de ambos os genes, e avaliar a utilidade desses polimorfismos para investigar a diversidade genética em 31 genótipos cultivados de feijão comum e um acesso de P. lunatus. Para tanto, primers específicos foram desenhados e as sequências obtidas foram alinhadas, permitindo a identificação de vários sítios polimórficos. Parâmetros moleculares foram estimados pelo software Arlequin e MEGA. As análises de agrupamento foram conduzidas através do método Neighbor-joining. Foram detectadas 361 bases polimórficas, das quais 260 foram do tipo substituição e 101, indel. A frequência de SNPs em regiões não codantes foi duas vezes maior do que em regiões traduzidas, em ambos os genes; também, a substituições do tipo transição foram mais freqüentes do que as do tipo transversão. Os polimorfismos em regiões codantes levaram à substituição de 17 aminoácidos na proteína faseolina, e 14 na enzima ferro redutase. Tais modificações incluem, na maioria das vezes, alterações de aminoácidos com propriedades similares. Vale destacar que sequência predita de aminoácidos da faseolina exibiu uma diversidade elevada entre os acessos investigados, sendo que alguns desses polimorfismos se prestaram para tipificar alguns acessos. Em contrapartida, a enzima ferro redutase exibiu um padrão de aminoácidos mais homogêneo, principalmente para os acessos andinos. As análises de agrupamento revelaram dois clusters bem definidos: um que agrupou os acessos Mesoamericanos e as cultivares brasileiras, e outro que agrupou os Andinos, sugerindo que sequências gênicas são úteis na distinção dos pools gênicos de Phaseolus. Todavia, os polimorfismos do gene -Phs permitiram uma melhor resolução das relações entre os acessos dentro de cada pool gênico, em comparação com os do gene FRO1. / Diversity analysis in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), based on morphological traits and molecular markers, has revealed the existence of two major gene pools, the Mesoamerican and Andean pools, which differ in several features, including the grain morphology and physiology. A novel approach to estimating genetic variability is in silico mining for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP). Arbitrary genome sequences as well as genic sequences were used for this purpose. Additionally, the investigation of nucleotide sequences that code for important proteins, such as phaseolin and iron-reductase, encoded respectively by the Phs and FRO1 genes, should allow new and informative markers to be generated, helping us to gain a better understanding of intraspecific variation in P. vulgaris. Therefore, the aims of this study were to sequence the -Phs and FRO1 genes, to assess SNP frequencies in coding and non-coding regions of both genes, and to assess the possible use of these polymorphisms for investigating the genetic diversity of 31 cultivated genotypes of common bean and one of P. lunatus. Specific primers were designed and the sequences obtained were aligned, allowing us to identify several polymorphic sites. Molecular parameters were estimated using the Arlequin and MEGA software packages. Cluster analyses were conducted using the neighborjoining method. We detected 361 polymorphic sites, consisting of 260 base substitutions and 101 indels. The frequency of SNPs in non-coding regions was twice the frequency in translated regions in both genes. In addition, the occurrence of base transitions was higher than transversions. Polymorphisms in coding regions lead to 17 amino acid substitutions in the phaseolin protein and 14 in the iron reductase enzyme. Most substitutions of this kind include changes that preserve the respective protein functions. The predicted amino acid sequence of phaseolin exhibited high diversity, and some polymorphisms allowed us to typify some accessions. In contrast, the iron reductase enzyme exhibited a more homogeneous pattern of amino acids, especially in the Andean accessions. Cluster analyses revealed two well-defined clusters, one containing the Mesoamerican accessions with the Brazilian cultivars, and another containing the Andean accessions, suggesting that gene sequences are useful for distinguishing the Phaseolus gene pools. Interestingly, the polymorphisms detected in the -Phs gene allowed better visualization of the relationships between accessions in the same pool, in comparison to FRO1.