No description available.

The aim of this study was to provide some information about the hydraulic performance of mattresses protecting slopes of low head hydraulic structures. The flow resistance as well as stability of slope were investigated. The experimental programme was conducted in the Chilworth Hydraulics Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering. Two models were constructed and tested. The inpermeable model (first) had a slope of 1:7 (V;H) with mattress dimensions of 320x350mm and a height of 40mm. The permeable model (second) was built with the same slope except that the mattresses were protecting a sand core. The flow resistance of the mattresses was studied which included Manning's roughness coefficient, Chezy's resistance factor and Darcy-Weisbach friction factor. Velocity distribution above the mattresses was evaluated and found well describing the flow. The stability of the mattresses and their ability to resist failure when exposed to higher discharges were also examined and found stable under the discharges tried. Detailed measurement of pressures were conducted in the permeable model in order to study their effects on the stability of the mattresses; such as; pressure distribution above the mattresses, uplift pressures and seepage forces. Shear stresses due to seepage forces were found very small and could be neglected. Comparison with the results of smooth board simulating a reinforced concrete structure, favours the mattresses as a means to control erosion and dissipate energy efficiently. Measures were suggested in terms of installation to reduce the drag and uplift forces. A design procedure for a slope protected by mattresses was set up and followed by a numerical example implementing the results obtained in this study.

No description available.

abstract: Social-ecological systems (SES) are replete with hard and soft human-made components (or infrastructures) that are consciously-designed to perform specific functions valued by humans. How these infrastructures mediate human-environment interactions is thus a key determinant of many sustainability problems in present-day SES. This dissertation examines the question of how some of the designed aspects of physical and social infrastructures influence the robustness of SES under global change. Due to the fragility of rural livelihood systems, locally-managed common-pool resource systems that depend on infrastructure, such as irrigated agriculture and community forestry, are of particular importance to address this sustainability question. This dissertation presents three studies that explored the robustness of communal irrigation and forestry systems to economic or environmental shocks. The first study examined how the design of irrigation infrastructure affects the robustness of system performance to an economic shock. Using a stylized dynamic model of an irrigation system as a testing ground, this study shows that changes in infrastructure design can induce fundamental changes in qualitative system behavior (i.e., regime shifts) as well as altered robustness characteristics. The second study explored how connectedness among social units (a kind of social infrastructure) influenced the post-failure transformations of large-N forest commons under economic globalization. Using inferential statistics, the second study argues that some attributes of the social connectedness that helped system robustness in the past made the system more vulnerable to undesirable transformations in the current era. The third study explored the question of how to guide adaptive management of SES for more robustness under uncertainty. This study used an existing laboratory behavioral experiment in which human-subjects tackle a decision problem on collective management of an irrigation system under environmental uncertainty. The contents of group communication and the decisions of individuals were analyzed to understand how configurations of learning-by-doing and other adaptability-related conditions may be causally linked to robustness under environmental uncertainty. The results show that robust systems are characterized by two conditions: active learning-by-doing through outer-loop processes, i.e., frequent updating of shared assumptions or goals that underlie specific group strategies, and frequent monitoring and reflection of past outcomes. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Sustainability 2015

The Utah Water Research Laboratory, in conjunction with the State of Utah, initiated a study to determine the accuracy of a wide variety of flow measurement devices in Utah. The project selected 70 sites with flow measurement devices throughout the state. During the assessment each device had its physical condition and flow measurement accuracy documented. Although a wide variety of flow measurement devices were tested, the majority were Parshall flumes. Many of the assessed Parshall flumes were not measuring flow to the specified ±5 percent design accuracy. Problems in flow measurement were due to issues with the staff gauge location and incorrect entrance geometry. Laboratory tests were conducted at the Utah Water Research Laboratory in an attempt to provide accurate flow measurement from flumes with these issues. The tests simulated incorrect locations for measuring upstream head with different entrance geometries on a 2-ft-wide Parshall flume. The flume was tested with three different entrance wingwall configurations, eighteen stilling wells, and two point gauges, allowing water surface profiles to be collected throughout the flume. Corrections for incorrect head measurement locations and entrance geometries were created. The objective of this thesis is to provide water users and regulators with the information necessary to help improve open-channel flow measurement accuracies. An overview of design accuracies and flow measurement devices is given. In addition, a method to correct for incorrect head readings in Parshall flumes, a widely used flow measurement device in Utah, is presented. It is expected that this information will help water users and regulators monitor their water with the understanding necessary to ensure that water is more accurately measured.

Thesis (M. Ed. (Mathematics Education)) -- University of Limpopo, 2016 / The advent of a new mathematics curriculum in South Africa requires a sound Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) for both novice and experienced educators. Central to this is the challenge of identifying and exploring “rich and appropriate” contexts that may serve as “scaffolds” in the understanding and internalization of school level mathematics concepts. This exploratory, inductive study focused on a real-life irrigation technology in the farming sector with a view to “exploring” the general school level mathematics concepts that might be “grounded” in the machine’s mobility and water spread mechanisms. Data was generated through two stages of theoretical and practical approaches. This was in accordance with Alasuutari’s (1993) phases of simplification of observations and “solving the enigma” during an exploratory research project. In the theoretical approach, the operations of a linear move irrigation machine and a circular move center pivot irrigation system were mimicked through sketches which were explored for the general school level mathematics concepts embedded therein. The practical approach centrally focused on hands-on activities that aimed at verifying the theoretical mathematics models that were perceived to explain how the CPIS moves and spread water across the entire irrigation field. An intense observation of the actual Centre Pivot Irrigation System (CPIS) at the research site formed the spine of the latter data collection stage. Finally a document analysis, which focused on mathematics documents such as the National Curriculum Statement and Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement documents for grades R-12, was done to ascertain the school level at which the grounded general mathematics concepts are applicable. The findings of this study indicated that certain mathematics concepts might be “constructed” and consolidated in the CPIS context or setting.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Agricultural Economics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2015 / Various types of management practices/institutional arrangements of the irrigation schemes exist in the world. According to the principles delineated in literatures, these irrigation schemes are categorized in terms of their management practices. The study was designed to compare the level of technical efficiency of farmers at different management practices of the irrigation schemes (i.e. integrated, specialised and multipurpose water management practices of the irrigation schemes) in Limpopo Province. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire which was administered on 200 farmers at different irrigation schemes. Stochastic frontier production function of Cobb-Douglas type was employed to analyse the data and thereby ascertain the level of technical efficiency and its determinants. The results indicated the mean technical efficiency of 0.74, 0.72 and 0.76 for the integrated, specialised and multipurpose water management practices of the irrigation schemes respectively which implied that, there is a greater scope to increase maize, tomato, onion and spinach production with the current technology and resources available at the irrigation schemes. The most important contributors in maize, tomato, onion and spinach production efficiencies were seed, fertilizer, capital and land. Thus an appropriate amount of seed, fertilizer, capital and land could increase the productivity of maize, tomato, onion and spinach. The results further revealed that education level of farmers, age of the farmers and land size were negatively significant toward the technical inefficiency of farmers at different irrigation schemes, which imply that an increase in any of the three variables will reduce the inefficiency and enhance the efficiency. While the family size of the farmer was positively significant, which implies that the bigger the family size, the higher the inefficiency farmers would become for the production of maize, tomato, onion and spinach. Gender and income level of the farmers at different irrigation schemes were revealed to be insignificant toward the inefficiency. The institutional arrangements or the management practice of the irrigation schemes showed slight differences in affecting the efficiency of farmers at different irrigation schemes. Policies designed to educate famers at different irrigation schemes through proper agricultural extension services could have a great impact in increasing the level of efficiency and hence maize, tomato, onion and spinach productivities. The Department of Agriculture should allocate more funds to strengthening the extension directorate and expanding the delivery of extension services to farmers at different irrigation schemes. Irrigation schemes were established in order to insure food security, alleviate poverty, job creation, among others. Therefore, it is of paramount importance for the government of South Africa in collaboration with the private sector to revitalise the irrigation schemes in Limpopo Province irrespective of the institutional arrangements. It is of vital concern for the policy makers to focus on the benefits of economies of scale in agricultural farming system. Therefore, land size should be increased for the farmers in integrated water management practice of the irrigation schemes to an optimum level in order for them to improve the level of technical efficiency.

O presente estudo teve por objetivo avaliar in vitro a eficiência dos sistemas de irrigação (convencional, ultrassônica e EndoSafe), na remoção do magma dentinário de canais mesiais curvos de molares inferiores, por meio de microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Foram utilizados canais mesiais com curvatura entre 200 e 400, de 47 molares inferiores, preparados com Reciproc (instrumento R25). Destes, dois condutos foram utilizados como controle negativo, e os outros foram divididos aleatoriamente em três grupos experimentais conforme a sua irrigação final: IC irrigação convencional com seringa e agulha; PUI irrigação ultrassônica passiva; EndoSafe irrigação com o sistema EndoSafe. Em todos os grupos foram utilizados 5mL de EDTA e 5mL de NaOCl por 30 segundos cada. A observação da região apical, após clivagem, foi realizada através de microscopia eletrônica de varredura em aumento de 1000X. Posteriormente, as imagens obtidas foram avaliadas por 3 examinadores calibrados pelo sistema de três pontos. Da análise dos resultados, pelo teste de Kruskal-Wallis, pode-se observar que o grupo ultrassônico e o EndoSafe apresentaram melhores resultados quando comparados ao grupo convencional, com diferença estatística entre os grupos (PIU: 40%; EndoSafe: 26,7% e IC: 6,7%; sem magma dentinário). Concluiu-se que a irrigação ultrassônica apresenta melhores resultados em comparação aos outros grupos, aumentando a remoção do magma dentinário no terço apical de raízes curvas. / The present study aimed to evaluate in vitro the efficiency of irrigation systems (conventional, ultrasound and EndoSafe system), on removing the smear layer of curved mesial root canals of mandibular molars by means of scanning electron microscopy to evaluate. Fourty seven mesial canals were used with curvature degree between 200 and 400, and were shaped with rotary system Reciproc (R25 instrument). Two of these were used as negative control, and the others were randomly divided into three groups according to their final irrigation: IC - irrigation with conventional syringe and needle; PUI - passive ultrasonic irrigation; EndoSafe - EndoSafe irrigation system. In all groups, 5mL of EDTA, and 5 mL of NaOCl was used for 30 seconds each. Root canals were split longitudinally and subjected to scanning electron microscopic at a magnification of 1000X. The presence of smear layer was evaluated by three calibrated observers using a three-score scale. Analyzing the results, using Kruskal-Wallis test, it could be observed that ultrasonic group and EndoSafe system showed better results when compared to the conventional group, statistical significance between groups (PIU: 40%; EndoSafe: 26.7% and CI: 6.7%; without smear layer). It was concluded that ultrasonic irrigation performs better compared to the other groups, increasing the removal of the smear layer in the apical third of curved roots.

Com o objetivo de aplicar produtos químicos como herbicidas, fungicidas, inseticidas e fertilizantes, independentemente do alvo (solo ou planta), foram desenvolvidos uma metodologia para dimensionamento de um sistema de pulverização acoplável a pivô central, um protótipo do equipamento e um programa computacional. Durante a aplicação, a estrutura aérea do pivô desloca-se sem realizar irrigação, apenas transportando o equipamento de pulverização sobre a área. O sistema é composto de duas barras de pulverização instaladas em cada vão do pivô, de maneira a compensar as diferentes velocidades decorrentes de sua movimentação. O regime intermitente da pulverização, responsável pela redução da calda aplicada, é feito por meio de um circuito eletrônico microcontrolado, sincronizado ao acionamento dos motorredutores, o qual comanda uma válvula solenóide que controla a vazão da calda para a barra de pulverização. Os resultados demonstraram que: a metodologia desenvolvida permite dimensionar sistemas de pulverização acopláveis a pivô central com elevada uniformidade de aplicação; o sistema é capaz de aplicar um volume de pulverização mínimo de 246L/ha para os regimes de intermitência avaliados; os diâmetros mediano volumétrico e numérico médio do espectro de gotas foram de 126,30 e 98,25µm, respectivamente, atendendo às recomendações técnicas para aplicação de defensivos agrícolas; o coeficiente de dispersão médio de 1,29 permite classificar o espectro de gotas como uniforme; as análises provenientes dos ensaios de uniformidade de distribuição para os tempos ligado/desligado da válvula solenóide de 0,4/2,5s, 0,5/2,5s, 0,3/3,5s e 0,4/3,5s resultaram em valores de coeficiente de variação inferiores a 15%, podendo-se considerar aceitáveis para pulverizações por meio terrestre. Além disso, o dispositivo de controle de altura da barra de pulverização e o circuito eletrônico utilizado para gerar a intermitência de aplicação da barra mostraram-se adequados. O programa computacional possibilita fazer o dimensionamento hidráulico do sistema de pulverização para diferentes modelos de pivôs centrais, utilizando a metodologia de cálculo proposta. / Dimensioning methodology was developed to design and operate a spray system attached to a center pivot, for the purpose of applying chemical products as herbicides, fungicides, insecticides and fertilizers. Both a computer program and prototype equipment were developed. During the spray applications, the aerial structure of the center pivot system moved without irrigating, just transporting the spray system around the area. Two spray bars were installed in each pivot span, in order to compensate for different speeds. Intermittent sprays were used to reduce water application rates. Intermittent sprays were achieved by solenoid valves, which were controlled by micro-controlled electronic circuits synchronized with electric motor gears. The methodology developed allowed dimensioning an attached center pivot spray system with high application uniformity. The system could apply a minimum volume of 246L/ha. The medium volumetric and numeric spectrum drop diameters were 126.30 and 98.25µm, respectively. The medium dispersion coefficient was 1.29, allowing us to classify the drop spectrum as uniform. On/off time sequences 0.4/2.5s, 0.5/2.5s, 0.3/3.5s and 0.4/3.5s resulted in coefficients of variation under 15%, acceptable for ground applications. The controls designed for the spray bar height functioned as planned. The computer program developed in conjunction with the physical model allows the use of the methodology for other center pivot designs.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The deficit irrigation is often required to overcome periods of drought and limited water availability. To reduce the impacts on production, water deficits need to be applied during less sensitive stages of crop development. However, to select the appropriate irrigation management, it is necessary to assess, properly, if the economic impacts of deficit irrigation are economically viable. To understand the process of water loss from crops, such as soil water evaporation and crop transpiration allows a better assessment of irrigation management practices in relation to deficit irrigation. This study sought to determine the basal crop coefficients appropriate for corn through the calibration and validation of SIMDualKc model, using the methodology of dual coefficients, separating crop transpiration and soil surface evaporation; to assess crop and water productivity, as well as water economic productivity for corn in relation to different levels of water deficit and under different irrigation systems and their economic viability, considering different alternatives for center pivot and drip irrigation. A set of experiments was conducted using different strategies of full irrigation and deficit irrigation through the methods of sprinkling and drip irrigation during the years 2011 to 2012. The simulation s results of the SIMDualKc model showed a good agreement between the simulated value of available soil water and the value observed during the crop cycle. The initial and mid Kcb calibrated values were, respectively, 0.20 and 1.12 and the end Kcb was 0.2 for corn grains and 0.8 for corn harvested for silage. Evaporation was lesser than 9% of the crop evapotranspiration in both drip and sprinkling irrigation, indicating, thereby, the possibility of using crop residues for water conservation. The economic results show that deficit irrigation was highly dependent on corn prices, while changes in the costs of water and labor had a low impact in relation to the economic results. The results also show that the deficit irrigation applied in periods of rain is easy to implement, unlike deficit irrigation for periods of reduced precipitation when only a small stress is economically feasible. Although improving water productivity and irrigation performance, the adoption of center pivot systems can favor irrigation deficit for supplementary irrigation when rainfall is frequent. The economic viability of using irrigation deficit in maize by the system of drip irrigation under surface was dependent on the cost of installing the system, mainly the fixed cost and life cycle of the lateral lines. / A irrigação deficitária é muitas vezes necessária para contornar períodos de secas e com disponibilidade limitada de água. Para reduzir os impactos sobre a produção, os déficits hídricos precisam ser aplicados durante as fases menos sensíveis de desenvolvimento das culturas. No entanto, para selecionar o manejo de irrigação apropriado, é necessário avaliar adequadamente se os impactos econômicos da irrigação deficitária são economicamente viáveis. A compreensão do processo de perda de água dos cultivos agrícolas como a evaporação de água do solo e transpiração da cultura permite uma melhor avaliação das práticas de gestão de irrigação em relação à irrigação deficitária. Este estudo procurou determinar os coeficientes de cultura basais adequados para o milho através da calibração e validação do modelo SIMDualKc, utilizando a metodologia dos coeficientes duais separando assim a transpiração da cultura, e a evaporação na superfície do solo; avaliar a produtividade da cultura e da água, bem como a produtividade econômica da água para o milho, em relação a diferentes níveis de déficit hídrico e sob diferentes sistemas de irrigação, e a sua viabilidade econômica, considerando diferentes alternativas para irrigação por pivô central e gotejamento. Um conjunto de experimentos foi realizado utilizando diferentes estratégias de irrigação plena e irrigação deficitária, pelos métodos de irrigação por aspersão e gotejamento durante os anos de 2011 a 2012. Os resultados da simulação do modelo SIMDualKc apresentaram boa concordância entre o valor simulado de água disponível no solo com o valor observado ao longo do ciclo da cultura. O valor de Kcb inicial e médio calibrados foram, respectivamente, 0,20 e 1,12, e o Kcb final foi de 0,2 para o milho grão e de 0,8 para o milho colhido para silagem. A evaporação foi inferior a 9% da evapotranspiração da cultura tanto nos sistemas de irrigação por aspersão quanto por gotejamento, indicando, assim, a possibilidade de utilizar resíduos culturais para a conservação da água. Os resultados econômicos demonstram que a irrigação deficitária foi altamente dependente dos preços do milho, enquanto mudanças nos custos de água e de mão de obra apresentaram um baixo impacto relacionado aos resultados econômicos. Os resultados também demonstram que, a irrigação deficitária, aplicada em períodos de chuvas são fáceis de serem implementados, ao contrário da irrigação deficitária para períodos de precipitação reduzida, quando apenas um pequeno estresse é economicamente viável. Apesar de melhorar a produtividade da água e do desempenho da irrigação, a adoção de sistemas pivô central pode favorecer a irrigação deficitária para irrigação suplementar quando as chuvas são regulares. A viabilidade econômica da utilização da irrigação deficitária para a cultura do milho, irrigada por gotejamento em superfície, foi dependente do custo de instalação do sistema, principalmente do custo fixo e da vida útil das linhas laterais.