A formulação de vacinas efetivas frequentemente requer a adição de adjuvantes capazes de otimizar as respostas imunes humoral e celular. Com o objetivo principal de contribuir para o desenvolvimento de novos adjuvantes, este trabalho foi desenvolvido buscando aprofundar o conhecimento do mecanismo de ação imunoadjuvante de preparações de saponinas de Quillaja brasiliensis e suas formulações em complexos imunoestimulantes do tipo ISCOM. Como a toxicidade das saponinas é um fator crítico para seu uso em preparações vacinais, inicialmente foram realizados ensaios visando comparar a toxicidade in vitro e in vivo de saponinas extraídas de Quillaja brasiliensis com saponinas de ação imunoestimulante reconhecidas, extraídas de Quillaja saponaria (Quil A). O potencial imunoadjuvante das saponinas solúveis de Q. brasiliensis foi avaliado utilizando preparações com dois antígenos: ovalbumina (OVA) e vírus da diarreia viral bovina (BVDV). Numa etapa seguinte, a atividade imunoadjuvante de ISCOMs preparados com saponinas de Q. brasiliensis foram avaliadas em duas vias de administração. O potencial imunomodulador dessas saponinas foi verificado em experimentos de recrutamento celular in vivo e expressão de genes relacionados ao sistema imune. Os resultados mostraram que saponinas de Q. brasiliensis são menos tóxicas que as de Quil A e apresentam atividade adjuvante similar, caracterizada por um perfil Th1/Th2 balanceado. Q. brasiliensis promoveu uma forte resposta imune celular do tipo Th1 caracterizada por uma robusta reação de hipersensibilidade celular tardia (DTH) e pela produção de IFN- e IL-2. A resposta imune induzida pelos ISCOMs produzidos a partir de saponinas de Q. brasiliensis foram superiores às respostas induzidas pelas saponinas solúveis. Os testes in vivo mostraram que as saponinas de Q. brasiliensis promovem um ambiente imunocompetente no local da inoculação e nos linfonodos drenantes. Esse ambiente foi caracterizado pelo intenso influxo celular (neutrófilos, células NK, células dendríticas, linfócitos T e B), além da expressão diferencial de genes relacionados à ativação do sistema imune. Em suma, os resultados mostraram que saponinas de Q. brasiliensis são seguras e seus potencial adjuvante foi equivalente a saponinas com ação imunoadjuvante conhecida de Q. saponaria. / Effective vaccine formulations frequently require addition of adjuvants able to optimize the cellular and humoral immune responses. With the goal to contribute to the development of new classes of adjuvants, this work was developed in order to achieve deep knowledge on the imunoadjuvant mode of action for Quillaja brasiliensis saponins incorporated into immunostimulant complex (ISCOM). The toxicity of saponins is a critical factor for its usage as vaccine preparations. At first, in vivo and in vivo citoxicity assays were carried out to compare to the effects between saponins extracted from Quillaja brasiliensis and the immunostimulant saponins already known from Quillaja saponaria (Quil A). Imunoadjuvant potential of soluble saponins from Q. brasilienis was evaluated using preparations of two antigens: ovoalbumin (OVA) and bovine viral diarrhea (BVD). As a next step, imunoadjuvant activity of ISCOMS prepared with Q. brasiliensis saponins was evaluated using two routes of administration. The immunomodulatory potential of these saponins was tested during in vivo cell recruitment assays and gene expression related to immune system. Our results demonstrated that Q. brasilienis saponins are less toxic than those from Quil A and presenting similar adjuvant activity, characterized by a Th1/Th2 balance profile. Q.brasiliensis induced a strong Th1 cell-mediated immune responses indicated by a robust delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) as well as IFN-у and IL-2 production. The immune response induced by ISCOMs from Q. brasiliensis saponins was higher than the one induced by soluble saponins. In vivo experiments indicated that saponins from Q. brasiliensis generate an immunocompetent environment at the injection site and draining lymph nodes. This environment was characterized by an intense cell influx (neutrophils, NK cells, dendritic cells, B and T cells) as well as differential gene expression related to immune system activation. In essence, the results showed that saponins from are safe and their adjuvant potential was equivalent to saponins with imunoadjuvant activity of Q. saponaria.

A formulação de vacinas efetivas frequentemente requer a adição de adjuvantes capazes de otimizar as respostas imunes humoral e celular. Com o objetivo principal de contribuir para o desenvolvimento de novos adjuvantes, este trabalho foi desenvolvido buscando aprofundar o conhecimento do mecanismo de ação imunoadjuvante de preparações de saponinas de Quillaja brasiliensis e suas formulações em complexos imunoestimulantes do tipo ISCOM. Como a toxicidade das saponinas é um fator crítico para seu uso em preparações vacinais, inicialmente foram realizados ensaios visando comparar a toxicidade in vitro e in vivo de saponinas extraídas de Quillaja brasiliensis com saponinas de ação imunoestimulante reconhecidas, extraídas de Quillaja saponaria (Quil A). O potencial imunoadjuvante das saponinas solúveis de Q. brasiliensis foi avaliado utilizando preparações com dois antígenos: ovalbumina (OVA) e vírus da diarreia viral bovina (BVDV). Numa etapa seguinte, a atividade imunoadjuvante de ISCOMs preparados com saponinas de Q. brasiliensis foram avaliadas em duas vias de administração. O potencial imunomodulador dessas saponinas foi verificado em experimentos de recrutamento celular in vivo e expressão de genes relacionados ao sistema imune. Os resultados mostraram que saponinas de Q. brasiliensis são menos tóxicas que as de Quil A e apresentam atividade adjuvante similar, caracterizada por um perfil Th1/Th2 balanceado. Q. brasiliensis promoveu uma forte resposta imune celular do tipo Th1 caracterizada por uma robusta reação de hipersensibilidade celular tardia (DTH) e pela produção de IFN- e IL-2. A resposta imune induzida pelos ISCOMs produzidos a partir de saponinas de Q. brasiliensis foram superiores às respostas induzidas pelas saponinas solúveis. Os testes in vivo mostraram que as saponinas de Q. brasiliensis promovem um ambiente imunocompetente no local da inoculação e nos linfonodos drenantes. Esse ambiente foi caracterizado pelo intenso influxo celular (neutrófilos, células NK, células dendríticas, linfócitos T e B), além da expressão diferencial de genes relacionados à ativação do sistema imune. Em suma, os resultados mostraram que saponinas de Q. brasiliensis são seguras e seus potencial adjuvante foi equivalente a saponinas com ação imunoadjuvante conhecida de Q. saponaria. / Effective vaccine formulations frequently require addition of adjuvants able to optimize the cellular and humoral immune responses. With the goal to contribute to the development of new classes of adjuvants, this work was developed in order to achieve deep knowledge on the imunoadjuvant mode of action for Quillaja brasiliensis saponins incorporated into immunostimulant complex (ISCOM). The toxicity of saponins is a critical factor for its usage as vaccine preparations. At first, in vivo and in vivo citoxicity assays were carried out to compare to the effects between saponins extracted from Quillaja brasiliensis and the immunostimulant saponins already known from Quillaja saponaria (Quil A). Imunoadjuvant potential of soluble saponins from Q. brasilienis was evaluated using preparations of two antigens: ovoalbumin (OVA) and bovine viral diarrhea (BVD). As a next step, imunoadjuvant activity of ISCOMS prepared with Q. brasiliensis saponins was evaluated using two routes of administration. The immunomodulatory potential of these saponins was tested during in vivo cell recruitment assays and gene expression related to immune system. Our results demonstrated that Q. brasilienis saponins are less toxic than those from Quil A and presenting similar adjuvant activity, characterized by a Th1/Th2 balance profile. Q.brasiliensis induced a strong Th1 cell-mediated immune responses indicated by a robust delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) as well as IFN-у and IL-2 production. The immune response induced by ISCOMs from Q. brasiliensis saponins was higher than the one induced by soluble saponins. In vivo experiments indicated that saponins from Q. brasiliensis generate an immunocompetent environment at the injection site and draining lymph nodes. This environment was characterized by an intense cell influx (neutrophils, NK cells, dendritic cells, B and T cells) as well as differential gene expression related to immune system activation. In essence, the results showed that saponins from are safe and their adjuvant potential was equivalent to saponins with imunoadjuvant activity of Q. saponaria.

A formulação de vacinas efetivas frequentemente requer a adição de adjuvantes capazes de otimizar as respostas imunes humoral e celular. Com o objetivo principal de contribuir para o desenvolvimento de novos adjuvantes, este trabalho foi desenvolvido buscando aprofundar o conhecimento do mecanismo de ação imunoadjuvante de preparações de saponinas de Quillaja brasiliensis e suas formulações em complexos imunoestimulantes do tipo ISCOM. Como a toxicidade das saponinas é um fator crítico para seu uso em preparações vacinais, inicialmente foram realizados ensaios visando comparar a toxicidade in vitro e in vivo de saponinas extraídas de Quillaja brasiliensis com saponinas de ação imunoestimulante reconhecidas, extraídas de Quillaja saponaria (Quil A). O potencial imunoadjuvante das saponinas solúveis de Q. brasiliensis foi avaliado utilizando preparações com dois antígenos: ovalbumina (OVA) e vírus da diarreia viral bovina (BVDV). Numa etapa seguinte, a atividade imunoadjuvante de ISCOMs preparados com saponinas de Q. brasiliensis foram avaliadas em duas vias de administração. O potencial imunomodulador dessas saponinas foi verificado em experimentos de recrutamento celular in vivo e expressão de genes relacionados ao sistema imune. Os resultados mostraram que saponinas de Q. brasiliensis são menos tóxicas que as de Quil A e apresentam atividade adjuvante similar, caracterizada por um perfil Th1/Th2 balanceado. Q. brasiliensis promoveu uma forte resposta imune celular do tipo Th1 caracterizada por uma robusta reação de hipersensibilidade celular tardia (DTH) e pela produção de IFN- e IL-2. A resposta imune induzida pelos ISCOMs produzidos a partir de saponinas de Q. brasiliensis foram superiores às respostas induzidas pelas saponinas solúveis. Os testes in vivo mostraram que as saponinas de Q. brasiliensis promovem um ambiente imunocompetente no local da inoculação e nos linfonodos drenantes. Esse ambiente foi caracterizado pelo intenso influxo celular (neutrófilos, células NK, células dendríticas, linfócitos T e B), além da expressão diferencial de genes relacionados à ativação do sistema imune. Em suma, os resultados mostraram que saponinas de Q. brasiliensis são seguras e seus potencial adjuvante foi equivalente a saponinas com ação imunoadjuvante conhecida de Q. saponaria. / Effective vaccine formulations frequently require addition of adjuvants able to optimize the cellular and humoral immune responses. With the goal to contribute to the development of new classes of adjuvants, this work was developed in order to achieve deep knowledge on the imunoadjuvant mode of action for Quillaja brasiliensis saponins incorporated into immunostimulant complex (ISCOM). The toxicity of saponins is a critical factor for its usage as vaccine preparations. At first, in vivo and in vivo citoxicity assays were carried out to compare to the effects between saponins extracted from Quillaja brasiliensis and the immunostimulant saponins already known from Quillaja saponaria (Quil A). Imunoadjuvant potential of soluble saponins from Q. brasilienis was evaluated using preparations of two antigens: ovoalbumin (OVA) and bovine viral diarrhea (BVD). As a next step, imunoadjuvant activity of ISCOMS prepared with Q. brasiliensis saponins was evaluated using two routes of administration. The immunomodulatory potential of these saponins was tested during in vivo cell recruitment assays and gene expression related to immune system. Our results demonstrated that Q. brasilienis saponins are less toxic than those from Quil A and presenting similar adjuvant activity, characterized by a Th1/Th2 balance profile. Q.brasiliensis induced a strong Th1 cell-mediated immune responses indicated by a robust delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) as well as IFN-у and IL-2 production. The immune response induced by ISCOMs from Q. brasiliensis saponins was higher than the one induced by soluble saponins. In vivo experiments indicated that saponins from Q. brasiliensis generate an immunocompetent environment at the injection site and draining lymph nodes. This environment was characterized by an intense cell influx (neutrophils, NK cells, dendritic cells, B and T cells) as well as differential gene expression related to immune system activation. In essence, the results showed that saponins from are safe and their adjuvant potential was equivalent to saponins with imunoadjuvant activity of Q. saponaria.

Recombinant strategies are today dominating in thedevelopment of modern subunit vaccines. This thesis describesstrategies for the production and recovery of protein subunitimmunogens, and how genetic design of the expression vectorscan be used to adapt the immunogens for incorporation intoadjuvant systems. In addition, different strategies fordelivery of subunit vaccines by RNA or DNA immunization havebeen investigated. Attempts to create general production strategies forrecombinant protein immunogens in such a way that these areadapted for association with an adjuvant formulation wereevaluated. Different hydrophobic amino acid sequences, beingeither theoretically designed or representing transmembraneregions of bacterial or viral origin, were fused on gene leveleither N-terminally or C-terminally to allow association withiscoms. In addition, affinity tags derived fromStaphylococcus aureusprotein A (SpA) or streptococcalprotein G (SpG), were incorporated to allow efficient recoveryby means of affinity chromatography. A malaria peptide, M5,derived from the central repeat region of thePlasmodium falciparumblood-stage antigen Pf155/RESA,served as model immunogen in these studies. Furthermore,strategies forin vivoorin vitrolipidation of recombinant immunogens for iscomincorporation were also investigated, with a model immunogendeltaSAG1 derived fromToxoplasma gondii. Both strategies were found to befunctional in that the produced and affinity purified fusionproteins indeed associated with iscoms. The iscoms werefurthermore capable of inducing antigen-specific antibodyresponses upon immunization of mice, and we thus believe thatthe presented strategies offer convenient methods for adjuvantassociation. Recombinant production of a respiratory syncytial virus(RSV) candidate vaccine, BBG2Na, in baby hamster kidney(BHK-21) cells was investigated. Semliki Forest virus(SFV)-based expression vectors encoding both intracellular andsecreted forms of BBG2Na were constructed and found to befunctional. Efficient recovery of BBG2Na could be achieved bycombining serum-free production with a recovery strategy usinga product-specific affinity-column based on a combinatoriallyengineered SpA domain, with specific binding to the G proteinpart of the product. Plasmid vectors encoding cytoplasmic or secreted variants ofBBG2Na, and employing the SFV replicase for self-amplification,was constructed and evaluated for DNA immunization against RSV.Both plasmid vectors were found to be functional in terms ofBBG2Na expression and localization. Upon intramuscularimmunization of mice, the plasmid vector encoding the secretedvariant of the antigen elicited significant anti-BBG2Na titersand demonstrated lung protective efficacy in mice. This studyclearly demonstrate that protective immune responses to RSV canbe elicited in mice by DNA immunization, and that differentialtargeting of the antigens expressed by nucleic acid vaccinationcould significantly influence the immunogenicity and protectiveefficacy. We further evaluated DNA and RNA constructs based on the SFVreplicon in comparison with a conventional DNA plasmid forinduction of antibody responses against theP. falciparumPf332-derived antigen EB200. In general,the antibody responses induced were relatively low, the highestresponses surprisingly obtained with the conventional DNAplasmid. Also recombinant SFV suicide particles inducedEB200-reactive antibodies. Importantly, all immunogens inducedan immunological memory, which could be efficiently activatedby a booster injection with EB200 protein. <b>Keywords</b>: Affibody, Affinity chromatography, Affinitypurification, DNA immunization, Expression plasmid, Fusionprotein, Hydrophobic tag, Iscoms, Lipid tagging, Malaria,Mammalian cell expression, Recombinant immunogen, RespiratorySyncytial Virus, Semliki Forest virus, Serum albumin,Staphylococcus aureusprotein A, Subunit vaccine,Toxoplasma gondii

<p>Recombinant strategies are today dominating in thedevelopment of modern subunit vaccines. This thesis describesstrategies for the production and recovery of protein subunitimmunogens, and how genetic design of the expression vectorscan be used to adapt the immunogens for incorporation intoadjuvant systems. In addition, different strategies fordelivery of subunit vaccines by RNA or DNA immunization havebeen investigated.</p><p>Attempts to create general production strategies forrecombinant protein immunogens in such a way that these areadapted for association with an adjuvant formulation wereevaluated. Different hydrophobic amino acid sequences, beingeither theoretically designed or representing transmembraneregions of bacterial or viral origin, were fused on gene leveleither N-terminally or C-terminally to allow association withiscoms. In addition, affinity tags derived from<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>protein A (SpA) or streptococcalprotein G (SpG), were incorporated to allow efficient recoveryby means of affinity chromatography. A malaria peptide, M5,derived from the central repeat region of the<i>Plasmodium falciparum</i>blood-stage antigen Pf155/RESA,served as model immunogen in these studies. Furthermore,strategies for<i>in vivo</i>or<i>in vitro</i>lipidation of recombinant immunogens for iscomincorporation were also investigated, with a model immunogendeltaSAG1 derived from<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>. Both strategies were found to befunctional in that the produced and affinity purified fusionproteins indeed associated with iscoms. The iscoms werefurthermore capable of inducing antigen-specific antibodyresponses upon immunization of mice, and we thus believe thatthe presented strategies offer convenient methods for adjuvantassociation.</p><p>Recombinant production of a respiratory syncytial virus(RSV) candidate vaccine, BBG2Na, in baby hamster kidney(BHK-21) cells was investigated. Semliki Forest virus(SFV)-based expression vectors encoding both intracellular andsecreted forms of BBG2Na were constructed and found to befunctional. Efficient recovery of BBG2Na could be achieved bycombining serum-free production with a recovery strategy usinga product-specific affinity-column based on a combinatoriallyengineered SpA domain, with specific binding to the G proteinpart of the product.</p><p>Plasmid vectors encoding cytoplasmic or secreted variants ofBBG2Na, and employing the SFV replicase for self-amplification,was constructed and evaluated for DNA immunization against RSV.Both plasmid vectors were found to be functional in terms ofBBG2Na expression and localization. Upon intramuscularimmunization of mice, the plasmid vector encoding the secretedvariant of the antigen elicited significant anti-BBG2Na titersand demonstrated lung protective efficacy in mice. This studyclearly demonstrate that protective immune responses to RSV canbe elicited in mice by DNA immunization, and that differentialtargeting of the antigens expressed by nucleic acid vaccinationcould significantly influence the immunogenicity and protectiveefficacy.</p><p>We further evaluated DNA and RNA constructs based on the SFVreplicon in comparison with a conventional DNA plasmid forinduction of antibody responses against the<i>P. falciparum</i>Pf332-derived antigen EB200. In general,the antibody responses induced were relatively low, the highestresponses surprisingly obtained with the conventional DNAplasmid. Also recombinant SFV suicide particles inducedEB200-reactive antibodies. Importantly, all immunogens inducedan immunological memory, which could be efficiently activatedby a booster injection with EB200 protein.</p><p><b>Keywords</b>: Affibody, Affinity chromatography, Affinitypurification, DNA immunization, Expression plasmid, Fusionprotein, Hydrophobic tag, Iscoms, Lipid tagging, Malaria,Mammalian cell expression, Recombinant immunogen, RespiratorySyncytial Virus, Semliki Forest virus, Serum albumin,<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>protein A, Subunit vaccine,<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i></p>