After the destabilization of Iraq following the overthrow of Saddam Hussein by U.S. forces, Iraq had the opportunity to emerge as a democratic nation. This study explores the emerging concepts of democracy in Iraq during the roughly 13-year period between 2005 and 2018 as the country moved from Authoritarian (Guardianship) and Thin (Successorship) views of democracy to a Deep (Western) liberal view. I trace the evolution of democracy in Iraq by probing the possible influences of religious, cultural, historical, external, socioeconomic, and physical factors influencing these concepts of democracy, analyzing the elections held during the period, and interviewing Iraqis in the United States. In a religiously conservative society such as Iraq, understanding the basics of Iraqis' religion helps scholars better understand how Iraqis define and view democracy. In examining the bases for varying views of democracy among Iraqis, religion as a collective framework generates meanings, attitudes, beliefs, values, and purposes to help make sense of Iraqi political experience and shapes individuals' beliefs, behaviors, and ethical structures. Additionally, income, education, personal experiences, and religious attachment also help to shape their definition of democracy. Using scholarship about the theories of democracy, this study constructed measures of different aspects of its meaning among Iraqi individuals and political parties. Then, using data collected from primary and secondary sources (including interviews, statements of the political philosophies of active political parties, statements of party leaders, and sources such as books, articles, media reports, public discourse, websites, and blogs), I examined several expectations about the extent of variation in and the nature of Iraqis' definitions of democracy. Each group evidently manipulated its definition of democracy to protect its interests at the expense of its rivals. Based on the evidence examined, five key themes emerged: restoration of full Iraqi administration of the country; schism in the Shi'a house between the two religious centers of Qum (Iran) and Najaf (Iraq); collapse of the ruling party; fluidity of political realignments; a rise of secularisms; and the emergence of a robust social movement supporting a Western liberal democratic system. Competition over shared social and ideological terrain often intensified political struggles, especially the fierce clash between and within the Shi'a and Sunni communities and Islamists and leftist forces. Although the intensity of conflicting definitions of democracy diminished over the two elections held in 2014 and 2018, a more universal definition is still sought. A clearer and more stable meaning remains elusive despite growing consensus on the term. In sum, this study is far from the last word on how Iraqis define democracy, as it continues to evolve in theory and practice. / Doctor of Philosophy / Between 2005 and 2018, Iraq held five national elections, followed by a series of political crises surrounding conflicting understandings of democracy. This study follows the evolution of democracy in Iraq during this 13-year period, as the country moved from Authoritarian (guardianship) and Thin (successorship) views of democracy to a Deep (Western) liberal view. I trace the evolution of democracy in Iraq by probing the possible influences of religious, cultural, historical, external, socioeconomic, and physical factors on ideas of democracy, analyzing the elections held during the period and interviewing Iraqis in the United States. This project highlights the views of democracy espoused by Iraqi individuals and active political parties. The study investigated the conditional nature of ideological congruence within the political parties in Iraq that had religious preferences. Various Iraqi groups exhibited different levels of understanding of democracy based on their religions, personal experiences and levels of education and income. Using scholarship on democratic theory, I looked at Deep (Western) liberal (pluralism), Thin (Successorship, Sunni rule by consensus), and Authoritarian (Guardianship), Shi'a centralized authority views of democracy and explored whether and how differences the rules of thought in each view were associated with Iraqis' definitions of democracy and accompanying political dislocation and mistrust. I examined these views of democracy based on multiple data bases, interviews, television, newspapers, and blogs and found that oppressed groups and religious minorities more generally accepted liberal democracy even if it had been forcefully introduced by an occupier. Different democratic perspectives are often associated with antagonism toward and discord in the electoral process. Thus, the definitions of democracy from each community's perspective are some of the most important predictors of democratic acceptance by Iraqis.

The diploma thesis explores the ideological development, contemptorary positions and political prospects of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. It follows the movement's long evolution on the background of its relations with the successive regimes of Nasser, Sadat and Mubarak, examines its current discourse on "Islamic democracy" including its stated commitment to political pluralism, the principle of citizenship as well as the connected subject of women's and non-muslim's rights, analyses its attempt to formulate a party platform and discusses the Brothershood's prospects in the politically closed environment of the Egyptian authoritarian regime. Obvious discrepancies notwithstanding, author argues, that if any meaningful pro-democratic reform in the Arab world is supposed to occur, some ways to integrate moderate Islamists into the formal political realm must be found.

The main purpose of the thesis is to investigate the possibility of bridging the dichotomy between Islam and the criteria of modern society by means of reinterpreting the principles (foundations) of Islam. The reformists Abdolkarim Soroush, Sedigheh Vasmaghi and Tariq Ramadan seek to prove that the methods keeping strictly within the boundaries of tradition interpreting the Quran along the lines of previous generations is not necessarily the sole means of coming to an understanding of the Quran’s message. The thesis discusses these reinterpreters’ critique of tradition and their arguments for the possibility of uniting the principles of Islam with the prerequisites of modern society. In conjunction with this, the question whether modern society presupposes a strict division between the private and the public sphere is problematized from a point of departure in Jeffrey Stout’s Democracy and Tradition. The thesis attempts to show potential conceptions of a modern society based on the principles of Islam.