An experimental apparatus was designed and built to study the thermal autoxidative carbon deposition, or coking, in the fuel injection nozzles of small gas turbine engines. The apparatus is a simplified representation of an aircraft fuel system, consisting of a preheating section and a test section, which is a passage that simulates the geometry, temperatures, pressures and flow rates seen by the fuel injection nozzles. Preliminary experiments were performed to verify the functionality of the apparatus. Pressure drop across the test section was measured throughout the experiments to monitor deposit buildup, and an effective reduction in test section diameter due to deposit blockage was calculated. The preliminary experiments showed that the pressure drop increased more significantly for higher test section temperatures, and that pressure drop measurement is an effective method of monitoring and quantifying deposit buildup.

An experimental apparatus was designed and built to study the thermal autoxidative carbon deposition, or coking, in the fuel injection nozzles of small gas turbine engines. The apparatus is a simplified representation of an aircraft fuel system, consisting of a preheating section and a test section, which is a passage that simulates the geometry, temperatures, pressures and flow rates seen by the fuel injection nozzles. Preliminary experiments were performed to verify the functionality of the apparatus. Pressure drop across the test section was measured throughout the experiments to monitor deposit buildup, and an effective reduction in test section diameter due to deposit blockage was calculated. The preliminary experiments showed that the pressure drop increased more significantly for higher test section temperatures, and that pressure drop measurement is an effective method of monitoring and quantifying deposit buildup.

Nickel aluminate reduced in hydrogen for 3 h at 500ºC was studied for desulfurization of model fuel comprised of dodecane spiked with benzothiophene (300 ppmw S). The nanopowder adsorbent was synthesized using combustion chemical vapor condensation, which created nickel aluminate with a BET specific surface area of 57.8 m2/g and average particle size of 11.7 nm. The nickel aluminate adsorbent removed 23 µmol of sulfur gram at breakthrough (<15 ppmw S). Regeneration by further heat treatment in hydrogen or air recovered 25% and 40% of original capacity, respectively.

This thesis examines the impact of oil price fluctuations and jet fuel hedging on firm value before, during and after the subprime crisis. Four regressions are estimated with two different variables representing firm value; market return and market valuation. The result of this study shows that the airlines’ oil price exposure has substantially decreased over time and that jet fuel hedging does not add value for investors.

Au cours de ces dernières années les activités de recherches sur les carburants reformulés destinés au secteur aéronautique ont considérablement augmenté. En effet, le fort développement du secteur aérien pousse les scientifiques à chercher une alternative au carburéacteur destiné aux aérodynes dans le but d’économiser le pétrole mais aussi de lutter contre le réchauffement climatique et la pollution atmosphérique. Dans cette thèse nous avons mené des expériences d’oxydation sur trois hydrocarbures lourds, un kérosène conventionnel Jet A-1, des kérosènes reformulés (bio kérosène) et de synthèse (carburant issu de la synthèse Fischer-Tropsch). Ces études ont été réalisées en réacteur auto-agité par jets gazeux à haute pression (10 atm), dans un large domaine de températures (550-1150 K) et à trois richesses (Ф=0,5, 1 et 2). Les analyses par spectrométrie d’absorption infrarouge à transformée de Fourier (IRTF) et la chromatographie en phase gazeuse (CPG-FID-TCD-MS) nous ont permis de mesurer les profils de concentration des réactifs, des produits finals et des intermédiaires stables en fonction de la température. Des mécanismes cinétiques détaillés adaptés aux composés étudiés ont été développés et validés par confrontation avec les résultats expérimentaux. / In recent years research activities on reformulated fuels for the aviation industry have increased. Indeed, the strong development of the airline industry pushes scientists to seek for alternative jet fuel intended for aerodynes in order to preserve oil but also to fight against global warming and air pollution. In this thesis we have conducted experiments on the oxidation of three heavy hydrocarbons, a conventional Jet A-1, reformulated jet fuels (bio-kerosene) and synthetic kerosene (Fischer-Tropsch jet fuel). These studies were carried out in jet stirred reactor at high pressure (10 atm), in a wide temperature range (550-1150 K), for three equivalence ratios (Ф=0.5, 1, and 2). Chemical analyses by Fourier Transformed Infra-Red spectrometry (FTIR) and gas chromatography (GC-FID-TCD-MS) allowed us to measure concentration profiles of reactants, stable intermediates and final products versus temperature. Detailed chemical kinetic reaction mechanisms adapted to the studied compounds were developed and validated by comparison with experimental results.

Esse trabalho faz da indústria de combustível de aviação no Brasil, especificamente o querosene de aviação - QAV, o seu objeto de pesquisa, uma vez que a mesma, do ponto de vista da estrutura de mercado, se caracteriza pela presença de poucas empresas atuantes desde a produção do bem até a sua distribuição, possibilitando o exercício de poder de mercado, levando à perda de bem estar social e alocação ineficiente de recursos. Ademais, busca analisar o ambiente institucional e como são formados os preços desse combustível no Brasil, tanto a nível de produtor quanto a nível do distribuidor, visto que os preços nacionais do querosene de aviação ao consumidor são elevados em relação aos preços praticados no mercado internacional. Devido a isso, esse estudo visa identificar também a existência de poder de mercado no segmento de distribuição desse combustível. O que tem se verificado no período de análise desta pesquisa é o Estado intervindo na política de preços de alguns combustíveis, por exemplo a gasolina, através da Petrobras, empresa aberta de capital misto sendo o governo nacional o maior acionista, e que é líder no mercado de refino e distribuição de derivados no país, apesar da desregulamentação nacional do setor do petróleo e seus derivados iniciada na década de 1990 e finalizada em 2001. A indústria nacional de querosene de aviação tem apresentado consideráveis índices de consumo e produção no período recente, devido principalmente ao aumento na demanda pelo transporte aéreo no país na última década. Por fim, a lacuna existente na literatura sobre a indústria referida motivou a realização da pesquisa, almejando contribuir para o entendimento da estrutura de mercado e formação de preços, bem como apresentar o ambiente institucional em que tal sistema produtivo está inserido. Para tanto, são utilizadas vertentes teóricas da Organização Industrial, especificamente o paradigma Estrutura-Conduta-Desempenho (ECD), a Nova Economia das Instituições (NEI) e a NEIO (New Empirical Industrial Organization). / This paper has the Brazilian aviation fuel industry (specifically the jet fuel) as object of research since that, from the point of structural view, is characterized by the presence of few firms operating in the production and in the distribution segment, which ones may exert market power, leading to loss of social welfare and inefficient allocation of resources in the economy. Moreover, aims to analyze the institutional environment of that industry and how the jet fuel prices are formed in national market, both at the producer and distributor level, since domestic prices of aviation fuel to consumers are high in comparison to that in the international market. Because of this aspect, the study also aims to identify the existence, or not, of market power in the Brazilian jet fuel distribution segment. Currently, what has been verified during the analysis period of this research is the Union intervening in pricing policy of some fuel, e.g. gasoline, through Petrobras, a mixed capital company, being the national government the largest shareholder, leader in the refining and distribution of oil products in the Brazilian market, despite the national deregulation oil and its derivatives, which started in the 1990s and was completed in 2001. Beyond these issues, the potential of the jet fuel industry is remarkable, showing considerable rates of consumption and production in the recent period, due to an increase in the national demand by air transportation in the last decade. Finally, the gap in the literature about the Brazil\'s industry of jet fuel is a notable fact to accomplish this study witch will contribute to the structural and institutional understanding of it. Therefore, to support this paper, theoretical stands of Industrial Organization are used, specifically the paradigm Structure-Conduct-Performance (SCP), the New Institutional Economics (NIE) and the New Empirical Industrial Organization (NEIO).

Energy carriers, such as coal, natural gas and biomass, can be converted by Fischer-Tropsch technology into synthetic crude (syncrude). Fischer-Tropsch derived syncrude can then be refined to transportation fuels, such as motor-gasoline, jet fuel and diesel fuel. These fuels meet the same specifications as crude oil derived transportation fuels. Conventional refining technologies have to be adapted to deal with Fischer-Tropsch syncrudes, because they differ significantly from crude oil with respect to composition. Some of the key differences are the high concentration of oxygenates and olefins and absence of sulphur in Fischer-Tropsch syncrude. Imposing a crude oil refining methodology on syncrude can lead to unwieldy and expensive refineries. Yet, despite an abundance of literature of Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, there is little literature that deals with the refining of Fischer-Tropsch syncrude. The present study investigated current refining practice for both crude oil and Fischer-Tropsch syncrude in order to identify fundamental differences in their refining focus and conversion behaviour. This was followed by a critical evaluation of the compatibility of syncrudes from high temperature Fischer-Tropsch (HTFT) and low temperature Fischer-Tropsch (LTFT) synthesis with the chemistry and catalysis of various conversion processes. The conversion processes that were evaluated include isomerisation, oligomerisation, etherification, alkylation, metathesis, hydrogenation, hydroisomerisation, hydrocracking, catalytic cracking, coking, thermal cracking, catalytic reforming and dehydration. The recommendations from the technology evaluation provided the foundation for the development of Fischer-Tropsch syncrude based refinery designs. Refinery designs were developed to determine configurations that would maximise the production of on-specification motor-gasoline, jet fuel and diesel fuel respectively. It could be shown that less complex refinery designs were required to refine Fischer-Tropsch syncrude to motor-gasoline and jet fuel, than were required for crude oil refining. It was also shown that on a molecular level Fischer-Tropsch syncrude is unsuited for maximising the production of Euro-4 type diesel fuel. The present study illustrates the advantage of considering fundamentals in developing refineries specifically for Fischer-Tropsch syncrude, rather than imposing crude oil design practises on Fischer-Tropsch syncrude refinery designs. / Thesis (PhD (Chemical Engineering))--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Chemical Engineering / unrestricted

ASTM D3241 (Standard Test Method for Thermal Oxidation Stability of Aviation Turbine Fuels) measures the thermal oxidative stability of jet fuels under elevated temperature and pressure conditions. When jet fuels fail ASTM D3241, either at the refinery or in the distribution system, there can be supply disruptions and financial losses. Understanding the causes of poor thermal oxidative stability in jet fuels could help prevent or mitigate issues. In order to develop a deeper understanding of the molecular precursors that lead to ASTM D3241 failures, a number of analytical methodologies and data treatment techniques have been developed, applied, and reported here. Statistical analysis of LC/MS ESI data from jet fuels with varying thermal oxidative stabilities allows for the identification of molecules that are significant to ASTM D3241 failures. Differential statistical analysis of LC/MS ESI data from jet fuels before and after thermal oxidative stressing in a QCM reactor elucidates which significant molecules are being consumed during oxidation and which molecules are increasing in abundance. The analysis of thermal oxidative deposits that form during thermal oxidative stressing in the QCM reactor allows for the insight into the molecular components of the deposits. Attapulgus clay removes the polar molecules that lead to thermal oxidative stability issues in the refinery. Extraction of Attapulgus clay that has been used in a refinery to filter jet fuel with a series of solvents removes the polar molecules into a series of fractions. The subsequent analysis of the fractions by comprehensive GCxGC/MS leads to the identification of the different homologous series of molecules that are removed by the clay. The analyses developed and employed here are shown to be particularly useful for the analysis of trace polar nitrogen and oxygen containing molecules. Similar homologous series of molecules are identified across all of the different analyses. It is also clear from some of the analyses, along with previously reported data in the literature, that reactive sulfur-containing molecules are significant to poor thermal oxidative stability as measured by ASTM D3241 and to the formation of thermal oxidative deposits. There is still an opportunity to find methodologies to better characterize the sulfur species present and correlate them to the data that is reported here.

The world is currently faced with the enormous challenge of slowing down human triggered global warming. As the global energy demand increases, there is an urgent need for renewable and carbon-neutral fuel-sources. Isoprene and isobutene are crude-oil derived, short, volatile and reactive hydrocarbons that can be polymerised into longer chains to be used as jet fuel. Isoprene has previously been produced from the cyanobacterial strain Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 but there has been no reported isobutene synthesis from any photosynthetic organism. This work aimed to synthesise isobutene in Synechocystis using a cytochrome P450 from Cystobasidium minutum with reported isobutene production capability. Substrate availability was to be provided through the insertion of two heterologous enzymes, IpdC from Salmonella typhimurium and PadA from Escherichia coli. Both IpdC and PadA were successfully expressed in Synechocystis but the functional activities of IpdC, PadA and the cytochrome P450 in Synechocystis remains undetermined. This project also had the aim to design and construct a photo-bioreactor and gas collection system capable of producing and harvesting isoprene directly from an engineered Synechocystis strain. Herein lies a description of a closed system photobioreactor connected to a cold-trap that was able to concentrate isoprene produced from Synechocystis to measurable amounts.

Dagens transportsektor är beroende utav fossila drivmedel. Detta är problematiskt eftersom fossila bränslen är en ändlig resurs samtidigt som användningen utav dessa bidrar till den förstärkta växthuseffekten. Enligt EU:s klimatmål ska utsläppen av växthusgaser reduceras med 20 procent till år 2020. Handeln med utsläppsrätter, som flygsektorn inkluderas i från och med år 2012, har införts som ett styrmedel som skall verka för att företag ska minska sina utsläpp. Flygföretag kommer härigenom att ha ökade incitament att blanda in en viss procenthalt biojetbränsle i det fossila jetbränslet. Mycket forskning och utveckling pågår kring framtagandet av andra generationens biodrivmedel, till vilka algbaserat biodrivmedel räknas. Algbaserat biodrivmedel tros ha god framtidspotential då alger kan odlas på mark som ej är lämplig för matodling, har en hög tillväxttakt, högt oljeinnehåll samt förmågan att ta upp koldioxid från sin omgivning. Syftet med denna rapport var därmed att skapa en bred bild kring möjligheterna att med ekonomisk vinning producera algbaserat biodrivmedel för flyg i Sverige, vilken kan ligga till grund för vidare forskning på området. Målet var att utföra en lönsamhetsanalys för en produktionsprocess med lämpligt vald odlingsanläggning, algart, skördeteknik, vattenavskiljningsteknik samt teknik för vidare förädlingsprocesser. Detta efter att marknaden först, med hjälp av Porters femkraftsmodell, hade bedömts som lämplig att gå in på. Valen fattades med utgångspunkt i en litteraturstudie baserad på intervjuer, faktasökning i rapportdatabaser och i sökmotorer på Internet samt ett studiebesök på Käppala reningsverk. Valen kring produktionsanläggningen samt projektets uppskattade kostnader och intäkter motiverades i en fallstudie som sedan låg till grund för modellen.   I modellen beräknades ett konkurrenskraftigt pris på biojetbränsle utifrån kostnaden för fossilt jetbränsle plus detta fossilbränsles relaterade utsläppsrättskostnad vid år 2020. Utifrån modellens huvudscenario uppskattades på så vis det konkurrenskraftiga priset år 2020 till 7,2 kronor per liter. För odling valdes öppna raceway-dammar i anslutning till ett reningsverk där det finns fri tillgång på näringsämnen och koldioxid. Algarten Chlorella Vulgaris valdes då den lämpar sig väl för denna odlingsanläggning. Produktionen beräknades uppnå en volym av 60 400 liter färdigt biojetbränsle per odlingssäsong (juni till september). Den årliga intäkten för huvudscenariot blev 455 100 kronor per år, medräknat det reningsverket antas betala för den koldioxidminskning algodlingen medför. Genom att alternera råoljepriset och utsläppsrättspriset togs fyra grundscenarion fram. Det utgicks ifrån att anläggningen tas i bruk år 2017 och en resultaträkning för en sjuårsperiod utfördes utifrån den årliga intäkten, framräknad grundinvestering och framräknade driftskostnader.  Det årliga resultatet visade sig vara negativt eller strax över noll för samtliga fyra scenarion samt för huvudscenariot. Först vid ett försäljningspris på 10,8 kronor per liter blev projektet lönsamt med ett positivt nuvärde beräknat på sju år och en internränta på 15 procent. Återbetalningstiden beräknades till max fyra år.     Huruvida ett premiumpris på 10,8 kronor per liter, flera kronor högre än det som ansågs vara konkurrenskraftigt, är möjligt att ta betalt för det algbaserade biojetbränslet är osäkert. Utifrån uppskattad kostnads- och intäktsbild är dock detta ett måste för att produktionen skall vara lönsam. I annat fall krävs externa förändringar såsom exempelvis kraftigt höjda råoljepriser, forskningsframsteg och effektiviseringar för framställningen av algbiodrivmedel eller att ytterligare politiska styrmedel gynnar biodrivmedel. Miljökostnader och miljövinster med en algbaserad biodrivmedelsproduktion samt förslag på ytterligare effektivisering av produktionen är vidare forskningsområden som denna rapport ämnar ligga till grund för. / Today’s transportation sector is in a path dependency of the using of fossil fuel. This is problematic since there are limited oil sources in the world and since the use of fossil fuels increases the green house effects. According to EU’s climate goals the emissions of green house gases should be reduced by 20 percent by year 2020. The European emission trading system, which the airline industry will be a part of from 2012, raises the incentives for companies to lower their emissions. Airline companies will therefore be more likely to add a certain percentage of biofuels into their aircraft engines. A lot of research and development is currently being made about the second generation of biofuel. One raw material for a second generation biofuel is algae, which is believed to have great potential due to the fact that it can be cultured on marginal land, fast growth rate, high oil content and consumes carbon dioxide while growing.  The aim with this report was to create a picture of the opportunities in Sweden to economically feasible produce algae biofuel for aircraft, from which continuous research can be made. The goal was to create an evaluation of whether it is profitable or not to have a production with carefully chosen growth facility, algae specie, harvest method, drying method and other refining steps. The market was first evaluated and found to be attractive, using the model of Porter’s five forces. Different decisions regarding the production was made based on interviews, information found in report databases and search engines online and based on the study visit at Käppala wastewater treatment plant. These decisions and the costs they are associated with were later used in the model.   A competitive bio jet fuel price year 2020 is regarded to be the price on fossil jet fuel plus the cost for the related certificate of emission cost. In the model’s main scenario the competitive liter price year 2020 was calculated to be 7.2 Swedish kronor. The growth facility was designed as an open raceway pond integrated in a wastewater treatment plant, since the wastewater contains nutrition and carbon dioxide used in the algae photosynthesis. The algae specie chosen was Chlorella Vulgaris. The production will run every year from June to September and the produced volume is estimated 60 400 liters of bio jet fuel each production season. The yearly sales in the main scenario, including the money the wastewater treatment is paying for lowered carbon dioxide emissions, are estimated at 455 100 Swedish kronor. By altering the price of fossil fuel and of emission trading certificates four different scenarios were created. The production will begin in 2017 and the result was calculated for the first seven years based on the yearly income and the estimated start-up costs and running costs. The result turned out to be negative or just above zero for all four scenarios. The project was profitable at the price 10.8 Swedish kronor per liter with a positive net current value over seven years and internal rate of return at 15 percent. The payback time was calculated to be four years at the most.   Whether or not it is possible to charge 10.8 Swedish kronor per liter is not certain. However, this is the price needed in order for the project to be profitable. Otherwise external changes are needed such as increased raw oil prices, successful research and development in the field of algae bio fuel production or increased political incentives in favor of bio fuels. Environmental costs and environmental gains with an algae fuel production as well as proposals for further efficiency are suggestions on further work that need to be done on this field.