Small business leaders continually face challenges due to limited resources and lack of employees' engagement. Only 78% of new small businesses survive 1 year after establishment, and half of those fail within the next 4 years. The purpose of this multiple case study was to explore strategies small business leaders used to increase employees' overall job satisfaction in Alberta, Canada. The conceptual framework for the study was transformational leadership theory. The targeted population was 10 purposefully sampled leaders of small businesses from different industries located in Alberta. Member checking and methodological triangulation were used to validate the data gathered through face-to-face semistructured interviews, a review of organizational policy documents, yearly reports, websites, and company marketing brochures. Data were analyzed using inductive coding of phrases and word frequency searches. Using thematic analysis, 3 themes emerged: the importance of supportive leadership that addressed individualized needs, necessity of financial rewards, and prominence of nonfinancial rewards to improve job satisfaction. The implications of this study for positive social change include providing leaders of small businesses with strategies that might enforce the sense of social responsibility and induce them to give back to the community by training new and existing employees and supporting communities through fostering self-development and self-support along with engendering pride in creativity.

This study examined the effects of different types of child care arrangements (i.e., care by relatives; care by nonrelatives; self-care by child; and care by day care centers) and satisfaction with care on employee absenteeism and job satisfaction. A 53% response rate was obtained from a questionnaire administered to 501 classified staff employees at Portland State University. Only responses from employees with children under the age of 18 living at home were used. Eighty-six employees met this selection criterion. It was hypothesized that parents using self-care by child would have the highest absences, followed by parents using day care centers, followed by parents using care by nonrelatives, followed by parents using care by relatives. Second, it was hypothesized that parents using care by relatives would have the highest job satisfaction levels, followed by parents using care by nonrelatives, followed by parents using day care centers, followed by parents using self-care by child. Third, it was hypothesized that satisfaction with care would affect job satisfaction and absenteeism such that parents who were satisfied with their care arrangements would have higher job satisfaction and lower absenteeism. Fourth, it was hypothesized that there would be a significant difference between men and women on absenteeism such that women would have higher absences than men. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that employees using care by nonrelatives had significantly higher absences (during the last month and year) than those using care by relatives. In addition, employees using care by nonrelatives reported the highest number of absences on both measures of absenteeism. This study revealed that type of child care arrangement was not related to employee job satisfaction. The analyses also revealed that employees' satisfaction with care was related to absenteeism (during the last month), i.e., as parents' satisfaction with care increased, the number of absences reported decreased. Therefore, the first and third hypotheses were partially supported but the second and fourth hypotheses were not supported. The results of this study demonstrates that the types of child care arrangements that parents use are related to employee absenteeism but not job satisfaction.

Business leaders in the accounting/auditing profession have limited knowledge of how employee engagement, employee job satisfaction, and organizational commitment relate to each other. The role of engaged, satisfied, and committed employees is important as globalization allows for unprecedented talent mobility. The purpose of this quantitative correlational study was to examine the relationship between employee engagement, employee job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. The theoretical framework incorporated Emerson's social exchange theory and Bakker and Demerouti's job demands-resource theory. The sample included 82 out of 295 members of the Northeast Chapter of the New York State Society of CPAs who work in Albany County, New York. The sample was recruited through a nonrandom purposive sampling method. There is significant association measured between employee engagement and employee job satisfaction (r = .717, p < .001). Additionally, there is a significant association between employee engagement and organizational commitment (r = .702, p < .001). Based on the analysis, there is a significant association between employee job satisfaction and organizational commitment (r = .853, p < .001). The regression model showed that employee engagement and employee job satisfaction, when taken together, were significant predictors of organizational commitment (F(2, 79) = 115.112, p < .0005, R2 = .745). The implications for positive social change include strategies geared towards increasing engagement and job satisfaction, which in turn influences organizational commitment, resulting in a highly productive workforce and increased profitability.

Sixty-five percent of small business leaders indicated a lack of workforce engagement practices as an administrative strategy to mitigate the adverse effects of employee disengagement. Guided by Weber's organizational theory, the purpose of this multiple case study was to explore strategies some leaders used to increase employee engagement. Five small business leaders in the southwestern United States participated in semistructured interviews. The participants employed successful strategies to increase employee engagement. Data collection included the review of company documents, face-to-face interviews, and member checking to explore successful strategies to increase employee engagement. Data analysis included coding and organizing data and information according to Yin's 5-step process. Using topic coding, data were arranged into nodes grounded in the context of organizational theory. The study results revealed 3 principal themes: effective and honest communication, supportive leadership behavior, and implementation of employee engagement practices into the business culture and practices. The implications of this study for positive social change include that leaders can apply employee engagement strategies for emerging leaders and develop mentoring and leadership opportunities and programs to maximize the sustainability of the organization.

The recent economic recession has led to a large number of dual-income families losing their second income or having a smaller overall household income as a result of hourly wage cuts. Previous research has examined how job satisfaction can spill over into home life satisfaction; however, literature on how life satisfaction can affect job satisfaction is scarce. Based on theories of job satisfaction, personality, conservation of resources, and affective spillover, this study examined whether job satisfaction of the working partner was affected when the other became unemployed. Measures of job satisfaction, life satisfaction, personality, spousal status, and some demographic data were collected from 99 participants, recruited via various social media sites, who were a dual earning couple and had a significant other who had lost their job in the prior six months. Analysis of covariance was used to compare job and life satisfaction of single- versus dual-earner families, with these covariates: age, education level, income, and the personality traits of neuroticism and conscientiousness. A multivariate analysis of covariance found that the covariates did not account for any significant variance in the analyses, and there were no significant differences between single- and dual-earner family status for either life or job satisfaction. While no empirical support was found for the hypotheses, supplemental analyses revealed that having a partner who worked part-time was preferable to having one who worked full-time, suggesting that part-time work allows for more family/spouse involvement. The social change implications for individuals and organizations include the exploration of how significant life events can impact job satisfaction. Continued research in this area could assist in increasing overall job satisfaction and performance.

This thesis investigates the structure of job-related well-being; the identification of variables that contribute to either psychological well-being or distress; and the causal connections among elements of job-related well-being and intrinsic job satisfaction.Two large samples (n=3,044 and 3,709) from a white-collar public sector organisation were used to test a four monopolar model of affective well-being, and the two bipolar model (enthusiasm-depression and anxiety-contentment) proposed by Warr (1990). Structural equation modelling (LISREL) was used to test both models, and results strongly supported a monopolar structure of affective well-being (enthusiasm, depression, anxiety and relaxation). Following the testing of the models, canonical correlation analyses related the set of the four affective variables and intrinsic job satisfaction to a set of predictors. The predictors were drawn from Wan's (1994) sub-categories of nine features of jobs that purport to enhance psychological well-being at work. Two dimensions were extracted from this analysis. The first dimension was mainly defined by intrinsic job satisfaction (from the dependent variable set) and supervisory support and skill utilisation (from the independent variable set). The second dimension was defined mainly by anxiety (dependent variable set) and job demands (independent variable set). From these results a model was developed based on the additive influences of the independent variables on the outcome variables (i.e., affective well-being and intrinsic job satisfaction) that helped explain psychological well-being and distress at work. Finally, a model was also developed that assumed a causal direction from intrinsic job satisfaction to affective well-being. Using a longitudinal sample (n=220) these causal relations were tested with USREL. Results supported the hypothesis that intrinsic job ++ / satisfaction leads to affective well-being, rather than the alternative model that had the causal connections in the opposite direction. It was also possible to demonstrate with the same data set that one objective organisational variable, namely tenure, affects intrinsic job satisfaction over time, thus arguing against the proposition that intrinsic job satisfaction is dispositional.

This thesis explores the role and relationships of employee participation in decision-making (PDM) within the enterprise bargaining context. The advent of the enterprise bargaining to facilitate labour market restructuring has led to dramatic changes within Australian industrial relations, supposedly offering employees the opportunity to participate in changes to work practices, conditions of employment and rewards in return for employer gains in productivity (Niland, 1993). Productivity improvements have been achieved, but some researchers claim this has been at employees expense and that job satisfaction and affective commitment are declining as working hours increase, work intensifies, and job security diminishes. Employee PDM influencing more positive outcomes, such as improved productivity, satisfaction and commitment is appealing, but largely untested.Research data was gathered from the public, private and local government sectors to form two separate studies to test a model of PDM developed from the literature. The first Study analysed cross-sectional data to test the influence of PDM in relation to working conditions, work practices and rewards and outcomes of job satisfaction and affective commitment, while the second Study examined these relationships on an independent longitudinal matched sample. Analysis was conducted using Structural Equation Modelling with the EQS statistical package.Findings from both studies supported that higher levels of PDM correlate with higher levels of job satisfaction and affective commitment and Autonomy is the only significant mediator in the relationship PDM and affective commitment. Employees also perceived that increased task variety correlated with higher levels of PDM. Lower levels of PDM correlated with lower autonomy and perceptions of performance effectiveness. Although positive attitudes to PDM positively influence ++ / satisfaction and affective commitment outcomes, lowered perceived performance effectiveness and rewards compromise the gains achieved. These findings support the crucial role of employee participation in decision-making and sound a warning to practitioners in that increased demands for performance should not extend to role overload that reduces effectiveness, and must be matched with equitable rewards.

Despite the large number of studies that have examined the antecedents of organisational commitment, the investigation of the influence of organisational culture and subculture on commitment is noticeably absent. The aim of this thesis is to examine the effects of both organisational culture and subculture on organisational commitment. Other measures which have been shown to be related to either organisational commitment or organisational culture are also included in the study. These are leadership style, job satisfaction and demographic variables such as age, education, years in position and years of experience. Recently, multivariate studies have examined the causal relationships between a variety of different variables and organisational commitment, and a number of these have concluded that the effects of these variables on organisational commitment were mainly mediated by job satisfaction. The data gathered in the present study is examined to determine if it is consistent with job satisfaction fulfilling such a mediating role between commitment and the other variables in the study. Also, a multi-dimensional measure of job satisfaction is employed in the present study and the effects of the different job satisfaction components on commitment are investigated. The subjects used in this study were nurses working in different hospital settings. A questionnaire survey was used which was complemented by semistructured interviews. A total of 398 questionnaires were distributed to nurses in seven hospitals, from which 251 completed questionnaires were returned (63.5% response rate). The sample was obtained from three general public hospitals, two private hospitals and two psychiatric hospitals. Correlational and regression analyses were used to investigate the relationships between nurses' commitment to their wards and the other variables measured in the study. A causal model of commitment was developed using a multiple regression analysis in which the role of job satisfaction in mediating the causal link between commitment and the other variables was explored. It was found that organisational subculture had a greater impact on commitment than organisational culture. Innovative and supportive subcultures had a positive effect on commitment and a bureaucratic subculture had a negative effect on commitment. The leadership style variable, consideration, also exerted a relatively strong influence on commitment when compared with other variables included in the study. The results of this study also revealed that the job satisfaction dimensions with the strongest associations with commitment were the control, professionalism and interaction dimensions, which represent intrinsic factors of job satisfaction or those related to higherorder needs in Maslow's (1943) hierarchy. Age showed a direct positive influence on commitment. However, the level of education, years in position and years of clinical experience failed to showed any impact on commitment. Thus, the results of this study are not in agreement with causal models (such as that proposed by Williams and Hazer 1986), in which the influence of various antecedents on commitment are totally mediated via their influence on job satisfaction. The effect of the culture and leadership style variables on commitment was found to be significantly reduced, but not totally eliminated, after statistically controlling for the job satisfaction variables. Finally, in relation to the different hospital groups, the results showed that private hospitals had the strongest bureaucratic ward culture when compared to general public and psychiatric hospitals. The most innovative ward culture was found in general public hospitals and the most supportive ward culture was found in psychiatric hospitals. These findings were contrary to expected outcomes.

The career development theory of Holland (1985) maintains that people whose vocational interests have congruence (or "fit") with their work environments will be more satisfied than those whose interests are incongruent. This study investigated whether this theory held for a group of 120 unskilled workers, and for 54 teachers. The key issues were whether interest-job congruence correlated with job satisfaction, and whether the congruence-satisfaction relationship was a function of the congruence measure used. While previous studies showed positive correlations between person-job congruence and satisfaction, most of these used professionallyemployed subjects, and some used students; few researchers investigated the experiences of unskilled workers. A meta-analysis of previous research, carried out in this study revealed an overall mean correlation between congruence and satisfaction of .16, which was very low. Structured interviews in workplaces were used to gather data from the unskilled subjects, and a questionnaire was devised for use with the skilled subject group. The interviews and questionnaires used a card-sort procedure to ascertain subjects' vocational interests, asked questions about subjects' L jobs, collected details on education levels and job tenure, and concluded with a job satisfaction measure. The data gathered were analysed in various ways. Two different interest coding systems, and four congruence measures were applied, to see whether different measures gave differing results. Congruence levels were significantly higher in the skilled subjects than the unskilled subjects when one set of interest codings were used, but were low for both groups when the other codings were applied. Average job satisfaction levels were similar in each group of subjects. When congruence and job satisfaction were correlated, no significant correlations were found, using either subject group, either interest coding method,'or any congruence measure. Similarly, when certain factors (tenure, education levels and gender) were statistically controlled, there were still no significant correlations between congruence and total job satisfaction scores. Certain individual items on the job satisfaction questionnaires showed significant correlation with congruence levels, however, indicating that congruent people were happier than incongruent people with certain aspects of their jobs. On the whole, the results did not support Holland's (1985) theory of vocational choice. The current study suggests that interest may not be a strong predictor of satisfaction, at least in the group of Australian workers sampled. There are implications for career guidance with less academically-inclined people; careers advisers must address other needs as well as interests, in assisting clients to make work and study decisions.

This study investigates how academics are managing and being managed by the demands of their everyday work. Specifically, it sets out to examine how a small cohort of academics located in a former college of advanced education (CAE), now integrated as a Faculty in a traditional Australian university, negotiate the dominant discourses and power relations in this setting. It considers the role played by government policy directives in shaping this particular workplace and its inhabitants. It also explores the tactics and strategies academics employ to manoeuvre the complexities of their day-today work life, and how these practices of the everyday fashion academics in this setting. To date, few studies have explored the changing nature and intensification of contemporary academic work from the perspective of academics working in a former CAE. In taking up this focus, observing the historical and cultural legacy of the institution, the study provides a situated perspective about academic work: one located in a particular workplace, at a particular point in its history. It illustrates how the academic self is fashioned through and within the disciplinary technologies and power relations operating within the workplace setting: how different types of academic performances are taken up and/or valued in this context, and how these performances are then implicated in the production of academic subjects. The research data comprised historical and institutional documentation, as well as semi-structured conversations with academics. A range of related theoretical ideas and positions are used to analyse three specific perspectives about being an academic: work(ing) policies, work(ing) narratives, work(ing) practices. Personal writing about experiences as an insider/outsider in this research study further informs the discussion, with insights about doing academic work in this (and other) workplace settings, and the role of the doctoral process in the subjectification of the academic self highlighted. The thesis puts forward the argument that managing everyday work is a complex and (self) productive process: one situated in, and shaped by, the institutional spaces – textual, discursive and operational – within which work performances are enacted. It depicts how academics take up, negotiate and/or self-regulate their work practices within these institutional spaces. The process of managing academic work is thus represented as an interactive yet bounded practice, subject to and subjectified through the specificities of the workplace setting and its inhabitants, and the power relations and disciplinary forces operating on and within the institution. The thesis also demonstrates the fashioning of the academic self involves a set of practices of managing and making do. These practices of the self, which are shaped by the aspirations and positioning (personally, professionally and institutionally) of academics, and the past and current circumstances of the workplace setting, highlight the mutually constitutive nature of discipline and desire in shaping academic work in an institutional context.