Magister Scientiae Dentium - MSc(Dent) / Introduction: Children with disabilities and other special needs present unique challenges for oral health professionals in the planning and execution of dental treatment. The oral health of children with special health care needs is influenced by various socio-demographic factors, including their living conditions and severity of the impairment. According to United States (US) Maternal and Child Health Bureau, special health care needs (SHCN) children are defined as “those who have or are at increased risk for a chronic physical, developmental, behavioral, or emotional condition and who also require health and related services of a type or amount beyond that required by children generally”. Aim and Objectives: The aim was to determine the oral health status of children with special needs. The objectives were to determine the prevalence of dental caries, periodontal disease and oral mucosal lesions among children with special needs in Khartoum State aged 5 to 15 years old attending educational and rehabilitation institutions. Methodology: A descriptive cross–sectional study was carried out. Data were collected with a data capture sheet that was a modified WHO Oral Health Assessment Clinical Oral Examination Guideline. Demographic variables, dmft, periodontal disease and oral mucosal lesions were recorded. Results: The mean dmft /DMFT scores was 2.02/1.25. The DMFT score increased with age, girls showed higher score than boys and autistic children had the poorest oral health among other disabilities. More than two third of the examined sextants were healthy, less than quarter had bleeding (18.3%) and 5% calculus accumulation. Fissured tongue was the most frequent oral lesion found. Conclusion: Children with special needs in Khartoum State demonstrated a high prevalence of dental caries and periodontal disease and do not receive adequate dental care. There is an urgent need for both preventive and treatment programmes to improve the oral health of children with special needs.

The prevalence of antimicrobial residues in table eggs produced in Khartoum State, Sudan was estimated and determined. All available producing layer farms in the state were sampled in April, June and August 2008. For each layer house three egg samples were randomly collected to increase the sensitivity of antimicrobial residue screening test detectability. In total, 933 egg samples were analyzed, collected from 175 layer farms (335 layer houses) in three periods of collection. An in-house residue detection test using Geobacillus stearothermophillus var calidolactis was the analytical procedure used for the analysis. Data were analysed using Survey Toolbox to calculate the true prevalence and confidence intervals. The proportion of layer farms with antimicrobial residues in April, June and August was 61.1%, 60.2% and 68.7% respectively. The proportion of layer houses affected in April, June and August were 56.0%, 54.1% and 57.1% respectively. The results showed insignificant variation among the three periods of the surveillance (p = 0.57). A census covering all three localities of the state (Khartoum, Bahry and Omdurman) was carried out in late 2007 and early 2008. Data were recorded on areas where farms occur, number of houses per farm, total capacity of birds and farming systems. The census showed that there were 252 layer farms in the state distributed in 31 different areas with a total population of 2 221 800 birds. A structured questionnaire survey was carried out in April 2008 in the state, to assess and collect data on risk factors associated with the presence of antimicrobial residues in table eggs. The questionnaire investigated antibiotic usage patterns for each layer farm as well as the basic knowledge and understanding of farmers about public health concerns associated with antibiotic use in food producing animals. Questions were closed ended and data was obtained through direct interviews with farm owners and managers. Descriptive statistical analysis was carried out on the information captured; calculating frequencies, graphs and measures of association, using the EpiInfo™ statistical package. Ninety two farms were surveyed 98% of which comprised open-sided houses. It was found that 48.9% of the farms surveyed were on antibiotic treatment when the survey was conducted, while 58.7% of the farms had used antibiotics within the last three months. There was a significant association between having disease on the farm and using antibiotics (P<0.001). The study showed that there is a serious lack of knowledge about the dangers of using antibiotics in animals and their potential impact on human health. In addition, Sudan lacks any type of formal control of veterinary drugs in terms of legislated residue limits or monitoring and surveillance programmes. This leads the authors to the conclusion that all Sudanese consumers are at risk for ARs in eggs. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Production Animal Studies / unrestricted

Khartoum State in Sudan is subject to the erratic and intense rainfall during the short rainy season and dryness and heat throughout the rest of the year. High intensity rainstorms with a short duration have become more frequent in the area during the last two decades resulting in cities inundation and flash floods in the rural parts. On the other hand, the dry season means hot weather in the urban parts and water shortage in the rural part. Rural areas are dependent on the runoff water brought about by the seasonal streams as a source of water. For this study, Khartoum City Center and Seleit area were taken to investigate the application of water harvesting in the urban and rural areas, respectively. Accordingly, the hydrological characteristics and the specification of the potential water harvesting sites and systems were examined. For Khartoum City Center, characteristics of the drainage system were examined using ArcGIS platform. It is found that the drainage system covers 42% of the area with total capacity of 24000 m3. Daily rainfall data for urban meteorological station were used to calculate the probability and the return period of the rainfall, as well as the potential runoff. Rainfall probability of occurrence was calculated applying Gumbel distribution method for extreme events that were arranged according to the Peak-over-Threshold method. The potential runoff that could be generated from a certain rainfall was calculated using the Natural Resources Conservation Services method provided by the United States Department of Agriculture (US-NRCS). Accordingly, the curve number was calculated depending on the land use/land cover and the hydrological soil group. Consequently, the weighted curve number is found to be 94%, indicating dominant imperviousness. 13.1 mm rainfall depth produces runoff volume equal to the drainage system capacity with return period of one year; whereas more than four folds the drainage system capacity is produced by 30 mm rainfall depth that is considered the threshold for raising flood hazard. Six potential sites for roof rainwater harvesting were selected. Accordingly, it is found that, the application of roof water harvesting in 18% and 72% of the commercial and business district buildings can accommodate the runoff resulting from the 13.1 and 30 mm rainfall depth, respectively. Hence, impounding rainstorm water would help managing the urban runoff water, and consequently, the stored water could be used for making more green areas that will enhance the urban environment. Three watersheds of ephemeral streams (wadi), namely Wadi El Kangar, Wadi El Seleit, and Wadi El Kabbashi make up Seleit area. Distinct maps were prepared in ArcMap for the calculation of the potential runoff and the specification of the appropriate water harvesting sites and systems. The Wadis watersheds areas are found to be 540, 344 and 42 km2 for Wadi El Kangar, Wadi El Seleit and Wadi El Kabbashi, respectively. Daily rainfall data of rural meteorological station were classified into three groups representing the soil dry (AMCI), moderate (AMCII), and wet (AMCIII) moisture conditions; the respective CNI, CNII, and CNIII values were calculated accordingly. The weighted CN values indicate high runoff potential within the three soil moisture conditions. Accordingly, the rainfall thresholds for runoff generation for AMCI, AMCII and AMCIII conditions are found to be respectively 18.3 mm, 9.1 mm and 4.4 mm for Wadi El Kabbashi and 22 mm, 11 mm and 5 mm for both Wadi El Seleit and Wadi El Kangar. El Kangar dam subwatershed was used for calibrating the potential runoff calculated by the NRCS method. Since the Wadis are ungauged, Google Earth and GIS platforms were used to calculate geometrically the volume of the dam reservoir water for three years. This volume was compared to the annual runoff calculated by the NRCS method. Consideration to different factors was made to locate the potential water harvesting sites. Accordingly, water harvesting systems for fodder and crop plantation; sand storage surface or subsurface dams; or groundwater recharge, were specified. The socio-economic study revealed that the financial capacity, if any, of the villagers is very limited. Thus, the financial source for the construction of the suggested potential water harvesting or the rehabilitation of the existing ones is questionable. Hence, other potential financial sources are needed to help executing water harvesting projects in the region, e.g. Khartoum State Government. Applying water harvesting in Seleit area is found to be promising. Improving the livelihood of the villagers by applying runoff water harvesting could assure better water accessibility, better income generation from farms production, and allocation of time for other activities, e.g. education. This would be reflected in reduced migration to nearby cities and stabilized market supply of agricultural and animal products. Therefore, the development of the rural part is of great benefit to the development of Khartoum State, as long as the interdependency and mutual benefit between the rural and urban areas, represented by the local food and labor market, remain exist.

Khartoum State in Sudan is subject to the erratic and intense rainfall during the short rainy season and dryness and heat throughout the rest of the year. High intensity rainstorms with a short duration have become more frequent in the area during the last two decades resulting in cities inundation and flash floods in the rural parts. On the other hand, the dry season means hot weather in the urban parts and water shortage in the rural part. Rural areas are dependent on the runoff water brought about by the seasonal streams as a source of water. For this study, Khartoum City Center and Seleit area were taken to investigate the application of water harvesting in the urban and rural areas, respectively. Accordingly, the hydrological characteristics and the specification of the potential water harvesting sites and systems were examined. For Khartoum City Center, characteristics of the drainage system were examined using ArcGIS platform. It is found that the drainage system covers 42% of the area with total capacity of 24000 m3. Daily rainfall data for urban meteorological station were used to calculate the probability and the return period of the rainfall, as well as the potential runoff. Rainfall probability of occurrence was calculated applying Gumbel distribution method for extreme events that were arranged according to the Peak-over-Threshold method. The potential runoff that could be generated from a certain rainfall was calculated using the Natural Resources Conservation Services method provided by the United States Department of Agriculture (US-NRCS). Accordingly, the curve number was calculated depending on the land use/land cover and the hydrological soil group. Consequently, the weighted curve number is found to be 94%, indicating dominant imperviousness. 13.1 mm rainfall depth produces runoff volume equal to the drainage system capacity with return period of one year; whereas more than four folds the drainage system capacity is produced by 30 mm rainfall depth that is considered the threshold for raising flood hazard. Six potential sites for roof rainwater harvesting were selected. Accordingly, it is found that, the application of roof water harvesting in 18% and 72% of the commercial and business district buildings can accommodate the runoff resulting from the 13.1 and 30 mm rainfall depth, respectively. Hence, impounding rainstorm water would help managing the urban runoff water, and consequently, the stored water could be used for making more green areas that will enhance the urban environment. Three watersheds of ephemeral streams (wadi), namely Wadi El Kangar, Wadi El Seleit, and Wadi El Kabbashi make up Seleit area. Distinct maps were prepared in ArcMap for the calculation of the potential runoff and the specification of the appropriate water harvesting sites and systems. The Wadis watersheds areas are found to be 540, 344 and 42 km2 for Wadi El Kangar, Wadi El Seleit and Wadi El Kabbashi, respectively. Daily rainfall data of rural meteorological station were classified into three groups representing the soil dry (AMCI), moderate (AMCII), and wet (AMCIII) moisture conditions; the respective CNI, CNII, and CNIII values were calculated accordingly. The weighted CN values indicate high runoff potential within the three soil moisture conditions. Accordingly, the rainfall thresholds for runoff generation for AMCI, AMCII and AMCIII conditions are found to be respectively 18.3 mm, 9.1 mm and 4.4 mm for Wadi El Kabbashi and 22 mm, 11 mm and 5 mm for both Wadi El Seleit and Wadi El Kangar. El Kangar dam subwatershed was used for calibrating the potential runoff calculated by the NRCS method. Since the Wadis are ungauged, Google Earth and GIS platforms were used to calculate geometrically the volume of the dam reservoir water for three years. This volume was compared to the annual runoff calculated by the NRCS method. Consideration to different factors was made to locate the potential water harvesting sites. Accordingly, water harvesting systems for fodder and crop plantation; sand storage surface or subsurface dams; or groundwater recharge, were specified. The socio-economic study revealed that the financial capacity, if any, of the villagers is very limited. Thus, the financial source for the construction of the suggested potential water harvesting or the rehabilitation of the existing ones is questionable. Hence, other potential financial sources are needed to help executing water harvesting projects in the region, e.g. Khartoum State Government. Applying water harvesting in Seleit area is found to be promising. Improving the livelihood of the villagers by applying runoff water harvesting could assure better water accessibility, better income generation from farms production, and allocation of time for other activities, e.g. education. This would be reflected in reduced migration to nearby cities and stabilized market supply of agricultural and animal products. Therefore, the development of the rural part is of great benefit to the development of Khartoum State, as long as the interdependency and mutual benefit between the rural and urban areas, represented by the local food and labor market, remain exist.

The recent advances in information and communication technologies (ICTs) over the past two decades have influenced many aspects of live ([19] and [7]). These advances make the issue of acceptance of ICTs a topic of increasing importance, particularly in educational research and practice [18]. Many studies have been conducted to understand, explain, and predict the issue of acceptance and use of new technologies. Fortunately, these studies have resulted in several serious theoretical developments [9]. Overall understanding of the role of culture and social norms in influencing acceptance and use of education technologies, particularly collaborative and interactive technologies such as the internet, can facilitate the successful implementation and use of these technologies in the educational context. This study concentrates on providing insight into the influence of culture and social processes on staff members’ acceptance and use of educational technology, namely the internet at Khartoum state universities (KSUs). Specifically, the study aims to identify the influential role of these factors on acceptance and the use of the internet as a helpful collaborative educational technology. To achieve this aim, the study adopts technology acceptance model (TAM), which is modified (i.e. extended) with Hofstede’s cultural dimensions (mainly uncertainty avoidance and masculinity). With the help of a structural equation model (SEM), the data assessment demonstrates the validity of the model and proves that social influence process and cultural factors have significant (direct and moderate) influence on staff members’ acceptance and use of internet technology for teaching and academic activities – i.e. the authors are able to assert that community matters in the adoption of these new ICTs. The article concludes by offering important implications and recommendations for both research and practice.

The recent advances in information and communication technologies (ICTs) over the past two decades have influenced many aspects of live ([19] and [7]). These advances make the issue of acceptance of ICTs a topic of increasing importance, particularly in educational research and practice [18]. Many studies have been conducted to understand, explain, and predict the issue of acceptance and use of new technologies. Fortunately, these studies have resulted in several serious theoretical developments [9]. Overall understanding of the role of culture and social norms in influencing acceptance and use of education technologies, particularly collaborative and interactive technologies such as the internet, can facilitate the successful implementation and use of these technologies in the educational context. This study concentrates on providing insight into the influence of culture and social processes on staff members’ acceptance and use of educational technology, namely the internet at Khartoum state universities (KSUs). Specifically, the study aims to identify the influential role of these factors on acceptance and the use of the internet as a helpful collaborative educational technology. To achieve this aim, the study adopts technology acceptance model (TAM), which is modified (i.e. extended) with Hofstede’s cultural dimensions (mainly uncertainty avoidance and masculinity). With the help of a structural equation model (SEM), the data assessment demonstrates the validity of the model and proves that social influence process and cultural factors have significant (direct and moderate) influence on staff members’ acceptance and use of internet technology for teaching and academic activities – i.e. the authors are able to assert that community matters in the adoption of these new ICTs. The article concludes by offering important implications and recommendations for both research and practice.