The importance of high-magnitude, short-lived flood events in controlling the evolution of bedrock landscapes is not well understood. During such events, erosion processes can shift from one regime to another upon the passing of thresholds, resulting in abrupt landscape changes that can have a long lasting legacy on landscape morphology. Geomorphological mapping and topographic analysis document the evidence for, and impact of, extreme flood events within the Jökulsárgljúfur canyon (North-East Iceland). Surface exposure dating using cosmogenic 3He of fluvially sculpted bedrock surfaces determines the timing of the floods that eroded the canyon and helps constrain the mechanisms of bedrock erosion during these events. Once a threshold flow depth has been exceeded, the dominant erosion mechanism becomes the toppling and transportation of basalt lava columns and erosion occurs through the upstream migration of knickpoints. Surface exposure ages allow identification of three periods of rapid canyon cutting during erosive flood events about 9, 5 and 2 ka ago, when multiple active knickpoints retreated large distances (> 2 km), each leading to catastrophic landscape change within the canyon. A single flood event ~9 ka ago formed, and then abandoned, Ásbyrgi canyon, eroding 0.14 km3 of rock. Flood events ~5 and ~2 ka ago eroded the upper 5 km of the Jökulsárgljúfur canyon through the upstream migration of vertical knickpoints such as Selfoss, Dettifoss and Hafragilsfoss. Despite sustained high discharge of sediment-rich glacial meltwater (ranging from 100 to 500 m3 s-1); there is no evidence for a transition to an abrasion-dominated erosion regime since the last erosive flood: the vertical knickpoints have not diffused over time and there is no evidence of incision into the canyon floor. The erosive signature of the extreme events is maintained in this landscape due to the nature of the bedrock, the discharge of the river, large knickpoints and associated plunge pools. The influence of these controls on the dynamics of knickpoint migration and morphology are explored using an experimental study. The retreat rate of knickpoints is independent of both mean discharge, and temporal variability in the hydrograph. The dominant control on knickpoint retreat is the knickpoint form which is set by the ratio of channel flow depth to knickpoint height. Where the knickpoint height is five times greater than the flow depth, the knickpoints developed undercutting plunge pools, accelerating the removal of material from the knickpoint base and the overall retreat rate. Smaller knickpoints relative to the flow depth were more likely to diffuse from a vertical step into a steepened reach or completely as the knickpoint retreated up the channel. These experiments challenge the established assumption in models of landscape evolution that a simple relationship exists between knickpoint retreat and discharge/drainage area. In order to fully understand how bedrock channels, and thus landscapes, respond and recover to transient forcing, further detailed study of the mechanics of erosion processes at knickpoints is required.

Geomorphologists have long observed the influence of lithology on landscape form and evolution. However, the specific mechanisms by which this is accomplished are not well characterized. Here, I investigate the role of lithology in landscape evolution processes across spatial and temporal scales and geomorphic domains, to progress our understanding of the basic controls on the processes which shape Earth's surface. These investigations were carried out within the Valley and Ridge province of the Appalachian Mountains, where contrasts in strength of underlying lithologies (juxtaposed by Alleghanian deformation) exert a clear, dominant control on the fabric of the landscape, providing an excellent opportunity to study the influence of lithology on a variety of landscape evolution processes. First, I assess the geomorphic function of boulders found on hillslopes and channels in the Valley and Ridge province of the Appalachians, which are sourced from resistant lithologies capping ridgelines. High-resolution UAV surveys and field mapping of boulder distributions and characteristics reveal that boulders are abundant on hillslopes and highly concentrated in channels, often trap sediment upslope, and appear to be long-lived. These observations suggest that boulders act as armor for hillslopes and channels, shielding weaker underlying units from erosion and inhibiting fluvial incision, and therefore play an important role in preserving topography in the Valley and Ridge landscape, highlighting a specific mechanism by which lithology exerts an influence on topography in this setting. Second, I investigate the relative importance of rock strength and discontinuity spacing in setting fluvial bedrock erodibility by comparing knickpoint and non-knickpoint bedrock, which correspond to end-member erodibility cases, and assess how lithology impacts knickpoint expression. Detailed field surveys of 21 lithologic knickpoints, surrounding non-knickpoint reaches, and corresponding bedrock properties reveal three key outcomes: 1) discontinuity spacing is a stronger predictor of knickpoint occurrence, and therefore more significant in setting bedrock erodibility in this setting, confirming quantitatively the hypothesis that discontinuities exert a dominant control on fluvial erodibility, 2) knickpoint expression is a function of the unique combination of characteristics within a given stratigraphic interval, and therefore highly complex and specific to local conditions, implying that knickpoint morphology should be interpreted with extreme caution, and 3) because all 21 study knickpoints occur within the same unit, inter-unit heterogeneity must be accounted for before lithologic influence on channel profile convexities can be ruled out, rather than comparing to geologic map contacts. These findings represent an important contribution towards a more functional understanding of the influence of lithology on fluvial bedrock incision processes. / Doctor of Philosophy / It has long been observed that underlying geology has a strong impact on the shape of the surrounding landscape and influences the erosional processes that act within that landscape. However, though the importance of rock type in shaping landscapes is recognized, the specific mechanisms by which this is accomplished are not well understood. The work presented here investigates the role of rock type and rock properties in landscape evolution processes in both hillslope and river environments within the Valley and Ridge Province of the Appalachian Mountains. This setting is ideally suited for investigating the role of rock type on landscape evolution processes because of the wide variation in rock types present in this setting, which exert a strong influence on local topography (e.g., strong rocks form ridges while weak rocks underlie valleys). First, I mapped the distribution of large boulders on local Valley and Ridge slopes and mountain streams to assess the potential for these boulders to play a role in preserving local topography. Results show that boulders are sourced from resistant rock types found along ridgelines, and are abundant on hillslopes and highly concentrated in channels. Boulders also trap sediment upslope and appear to remain in place for long periods of time. These observations suggest boulders play an important role in slowing erosion of weaker rock types underlying hillslopes and channels, and therefore aid in preserving topography in this setting. Second, I conducted detailed surveys of local small-scale waterfalls and surrounding flat river reaches and compared properties of the bedrock between these locations to better understand how bedrock properties influence erodibility. In this setting, waterfalls often signify strong underlying bedrock relative to the rock beneath flat river reaches, so comparing bedrock properties between these areas should give insight into how properties like rock strength and bed thickness impact how erodible the bedrock is. Results show that bed thickness is the most important variable impacting bedrock erodibility in this setting, and that waterfall appearance is a product of the unique combination of bedrock properties within a given area. These results are important for improving our ability to model natural landscapes and erosional processes, and for developing a more complete understanding for the relationships between rock type and river morphology.

A caracterização morfométrica e hipsométrica de bacias hidrográficas permite o melhor entendimento do seu funcionamento enquanto sistema, facilita a correlação com suas características e potencializa diversos estudos. O emprego de métodos quantitativos e qualitativos para caracterizar uma bacia hidrográfica possibilita uma maior compreensão da sua dinâmica e por isso o emprego de vários parâmetros é fundamental. Nessa tese é apresentada a análise morfométrica e hipsométrica e a determinação automática de hidrografia e knickpoints na bacia da Lagoa Mirim, uma bacia transfronteiriça, localizada na costa atlântica da América do Sul entre os paralelos 31°S e 34°30’S e entre os meridianos 52°W e 55°30’W, com 58407.78km2 de área, dos quais 47% estão em território brasileiro e 53% em território uruguaio. A análise e obtenção dos parâmetros e a determinação automática de hidrografia e knickpoints na bacia da Lagoa Mirim, foi realizada com técnicas de Geoprocessamento, utilizando as ferramentas de análise espacial e de manipulação de dados do programa ArcGis, versão 10.2.2. Foram utilizadas 15 imagens SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission), com resolução espacial de 1 segundo de arco (1”), aproximadamente 30m, para gerar o Modelo Digital de Elevação (MDE) da área de estudo. Este modelo foi validado com levantamento cinemático GNSS (Sistemas Globais de Navegação por Satélite), pós-processado com o método de Posicionamento por Ponto Preciso (PPP). As análises morfométrica e hipsométrica e a determinação da hidrografia e knickpoints da Bacia da Lagoa Mirim foram realizadas a partir do MDE SRTM. A hidrografia foi obtida com o Model Builder e ferramentas hidrológicas do ArcGis. E os knickpoints foram determinados através do Knickpoint Finder, um script em linguagem Python integrado ao ArcTollBox do programa ArcGis. Os resultados demonstram que a utilização de dados SRTM em ambiente SIG (Sistemas de Informação Geográfica) permite a caracterização de bacias hidrográficas, sendo útil para gestão e gerenciamento dos recursos hídricos e para estudos ambientais, mostrando-se uma alternativa prática e viável ao minimizar custos e tempo na execução dos trabalhos. / The morphometric and hypsometric characterization of river basins allows a better understanding of its functioning as a system, facilitates the correlation with its characteristics, and potentiates several studies. The use of quantitative and qualitative methods to characterize a river basin allows a better understanding of its dynamics, therefore the use of several parameters is fundamental. This thesis presents the morphometric and hypsometric analysis and the automatic determination of hydrography and knickpoints in the Mirim Lagoon Basin. Mirim Lagoon basin is a transboundary basin, located in the Atlantic coast of South America, between parallels 31°S and 34°30’S and meridians 52°W and 55°30'W, with an area of 58,407.78 km2, being 47% in Brazilian territory and 53% in Uruguayan territory. The analysis and acquisition of morphometric and hypsometric parameters and the determination of hydrography and knickpoints were performed with geoprocessing techniques, using the spatial analysis and data manipulation tools of the software ArcGIS, 10.2.2 version We used 15 SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission) images, version 3, band C, with a spatial resolution of 1 arcsecond (1"), approximately 30 meters, to generate a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the study area. This model was validated by means of kinematic GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) survey post-processed using the Precise Point Positioning (PPP) method. The intended morphometric and hypsometric analysis and the determination of hydrography and knickpoints of Mirim Lagoon basin were performed using the DEM SRTM. The hydrography was obtained with the Model Builder and the hydrologic tools of ArcGis. And the knickpoints were determined using the Knickpoint Finder, a script in Python language integrated to ArcGis ArcToolbox The results show that the use of SRTM data in GIS (Geographic Information Systems) allows the characterization of the watersheds, which is useful for water resources management and for environmental studies, and prove to be a practical and viable alternative to minimize cost and time in the work execution.

A caracterização morfométrica e hipsométrica de bacias hidrográficas permite o melhor entendimento do seu funcionamento enquanto sistema, facilita a correlação com suas características e potencializa diversos estudos. O emprego de métodos quantitativos e qualitativos para caracterizar uma bacia hidrográfica possibilita uma maior compreensão da sua dinâmica e por isso o emprego de vários parâmetros é fundamental. Nessa tese é apresentada a análise morfométrica e hipsométrica e a determinação automática de hidrografia e knickpoints na bacia da Lagoa Mirim, uma bacia transfronteiriça, localizada na costa atlântica da América do Sul entre os paralelos 31°S e 34°30’S e entre os meridianos 52°W e 55°30’W, com 58407.78km2 de área, dos quais 47% estão em território brasileiro e 53% em território uruguaio. A análise e obtenção dos parâmetros e a determinação automática de hidrografia e knickpoints na bacia da Lagoa Mirim, foi realizada com técnicas de Geoprocessamento, utilizando as ferramentas de análise espacial e de manipulação de dados do programa ArcGis, versão 10.2.2. Foram utilizadas 15 imagens SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission), com resolução espacial de 1 segundo de arco (1”), aproximadamente 30m, para gerar o Modelo Digital de Elevação (MDE) da área de estudo. Este modelo foi validado com levantamento cinemático GNSS (Sistemas Globais de Navegação por Satélite), pós-processado com o método de Posicionamento por Ponto Preciso (PPP). As análises morfométrica e hipsométrica e a determinação da hidrografia e knickpoints da Bacia da Lagoa Mirim foram realizadas a partir do MDE SRTM. A hidrografia foi obtida com o Model Builder e ferramentas hidrológicas do ArcGis. E os knickpoints foram determinados através do Knickpoint Finder, um script em linguagem Python integrado ao ArcTollBox do programa ArcGis. Os resultados demonstram que a utilização de dados SRTM em ambiente SIG (Sistemas de Informação Geográfica) permite a caracterização de bacias hidrográficas, sendo útil para gestão e gerenciamento dos recursos hídricos e para estudos ambientais, mostrando-se uma alternativa prática e viável ao minimizar custos e tempo na execução dos trabalhos. / The morphometric and hypsometric characterization of river basins allows a better understanding of its functioning as a system, facilitates the correlation with its characteristics, and potentiates several studies. The use of quantitative and qualitative methods to characterize a river basin allows a better understanding of its dynamics, therefore the use of several parameters is fundamental. This thesis presents the morphometric and hypsometric analysis and the automatic determination of hydrography and knickpoints in the Mirim Lagoon Basin. Mirim Lagoon basin is a transboundary basin, located in the Atlantic coast of South America, between parallels 31°S and 34°30’S and meridians 52°W and 55°30'W, with an area of 58,407.78 km2, being 47% in Brazilian territory and 53% in Uruguayan territory. The analysis and acquisition of morphometric and hypsometric parameters and the determination of hydrography and knickpoints were performed with geoprocessing techniques, using the spatial analysis and data manipulation tools of the software ArcGIS, 10.2.2 version We used 15 SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission) images, version 3, band C, with a spatial resolution of 1 arcsecond (1"), approximately 30 meters, to generate a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the study area. This model was validated by means of kinematic GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) survey post-processed using the Precise Point Positioning (PPP) method. The intended morphometric and hypsometric analysis and the determination of hydrography and knickpoints of Mirim Lagoon basin were performed using the DEM SRTM. The hydrography was obtained with the Model Builder and the hydrologic tools of ArcGis. And the knickpoints were determined using the Knickpoint Finder, a script in Python language integrated to ArcGis ArcToolbox The results show that the use of SRTM data in GIS (Geographic Information Systems) allows the characterization of the watersheds, which is useful for water resources management and for environmental studies, and prove to be a practical and viable alternative to minimize cost and time in the work execution.

A caracterização morfométrica e hipsométrica de bacias hidrográficas permite o melhor entendimento do seu funcionamento enquanto sistema, facilita a correlação com suas características e potencializa diversos estudos. O emprego de métodos quantitativos e qualitativos para caracterizar uma bacia hidrográfica possibilita uma maior compreensão da sua dinâmica e por isso o emprego de vários parâmetros é fundamental. Nessa tese é apresentada a análise morfométrica e hipsométrica e a determinação automática de hidrografia e knickpoints na bacia da Lagoa Mirim, uma bacia transfronteiriça, localizada na costa atlântica da América do Sul entre os paralelos 31°S e 34°30’S e entre os meridianos 52°W e 55°30’W, com 58407.78km2 de área, dos quais 47% estão em território brasileiro e 53% em território uruguaio. A análise e obtenção dos parâmetros e a determinação automática de hidrografia e knickpoints na bacia da Lagoa Mirim, foi realizada com técnicas de Geoprocessamento, utilizando as ferramentas de análise espacial e de manipulação de dados do programa ArcGis, versão 10.2.2. Foram utilizadas 15 imagens SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission), com resolução espacial de 1 segundo de arco (1”), aproximadamente 30m, para gerar o Modelo Digital de Elevação (MDE) da área de estudo. Este modelo foi validado com levantamento cinemático GNSS (Sistemas Globais de Navegação por Satélite), pós-processado com o método de Posicionamento por Ponto Preciso (PPP). As análises morfométrica e hipsométrica e a determinação da hidrografia e knickpoints da Bacia da Lagoa Mirim foram realizadas a partir do MDE SRTM. A hidrografia foi obtida com o Model Builder e ferramentas hidrológicas do ArcGis. E os knickpoints foram determinados através do Knickpoint Finder, um script em linguagem Python integrado ao ArcTollBox do programa ArcGis. Os resultados demonstram que a utilização de dados SRTM em ambiente SIG (Sistemas de Informação Geográfica) permite a caracterização de bacias hidrográficas, sendo útil para gestão e gerenciamento dos recursos hídricos e para estudos ambientais, mostrando-se uma alternativa prática e viável ao minimizar custos e tempo na execução dos trabalhos. / The morphometric and hypsometric characterization of river basins allows a better understanding of its functioning as a system, facilitates the correlation with its characteristics, and potentiates several studies. The use of quantitative and qualitative methods to characterize a river basin allows a better understanding of its dynamics, therefore the use of several parameters is fundamental. This thesis presents the morphometric and hypsometric analysis and the automatic determination of hydrography and knickpoints in the Mirim Lagoon Basin. Mirim Lagoon basin is a transboundary basin, located in the Atlantic coast of South America, between parallels 31°S and 34°30’S and meridians 52°W and 55°30'W, with an area of 58,407.78 km2, being 47% in Brazilian territory and 53% in Uruguayan territory. The analysis and acquisition of morphometric and hypsometric parameters and the determination of hydrography and knickpoints were performed with geoprocessing techniques, using the spatial analysis and data manipulation tools of the software ArcGIS, 10.2.2 version We used 15 SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission) images, version 3, band C, with a spatial resolution of 1 arcsecond (1"), approximately 30 meters, to generate a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the study area. This model was validated by means of kinematic GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) survey post-processed using the Precise Point Positioning (PPP) method. The intended morphometric and hypsometric analysis and the determination of hydrography and knickpoints of Mirim Lagoon basin were performed using the DEM SRTM. The hydrography was obtained with the Model Builder and the hydrologic tools of ArcGis. And the knickpoints were determined using the Knickpoint Finder, a script in Python language integrated to ArcGis ArcToolbox The results show that the use of SRTM data in GIS (Geographic Information Systems) allows the characterization of the watersheds, which is useful for water resources management and for environmental studies, and prove to be a practical and viable alternative to minimize cost and time in the work execution.

Identifying tectonically active faults and quantifying rates of movement is a key challenge in the Earth Sciences, in addition to this the interactions between active faulting and the landscape, specifically involving the fluvial network, is a relatively new area of study. Previous work has highlighted the value of understanding how the fluvial network responds to active tectonics, showing that a comprehensive understanding of the dynamic relationship between fluvial geomorphology and active tectonics is an important next step in geological research. This study presents new information about the poorly constrained Quaternary tectonic history of the Gediz Graben, Turkey, providing the first quantification of rates of movement of the key fault array that presently controlling graben topography. The fluvial network has been investigated and the data has been used in order to add resolution to the tectonic history for the fault array, allowing for the quantification of post-linkage throw rates. The study then investigates the key controls on the behaviour of the fluvial network that cross the active topography building fault array in the Gediz Graben. This study shows that there has been a linkage event occurring between 0.6 – 1 Ma, involving the three segments of the graben bounding fault array. The pre- and post-linkage throw rates are then extrapolated using data derived from the fluvial network, showing a faulting enhancement factor of 3 at the centre of the fault array, with the throw rate at the centre of the array predicted to have increased from a pre-linkage rate of 0.6 ± 0.1 mm/yr to a rate of 2 ± 0.2 mm/yr. This research provides evidence that the fluvial network can be used in conjunction with other types of evidence to provide a greater resolution tectonic history. Using both digital data and field studies this research presents an examination of the factors that influence the behaviour of bedrock rivers undergoing perturbation due to tectonics. Factors such as drainage area, tectonic throw rates and lithology have been investigated and the complicated interactions of these variables with the fluvial system have been quantified. This study shows that the bedrock rivers are a significant source of information about tectonics, but further work is needed to resolve quantitatively how various factors influence how rivers adjust to tectonic perturbation, in a variety of tectonic situations, in order to enable river to be used as a primary tool for deriving information about tectonics.

[pt] O processo de voçorocamento é apontado em muitas pesquisas como consequência do uso do solo, sobretudo da ação antrópica. Entretanto, no médio vale do rio Paraíba do Sul (RJ/SP), tem se observado que áreas sob o mesmo tipo de cobertura e uso do solo apresentam comportamentos diferentes quanto a ocorrência de voçorocas, indicando que existem outros fatores que determinam, de forma mais intensa, a ocorrência desse processo. Desta forma, esse trabalho se propôs a investigar os fatores que podem influenciar a distribuição diferencial do processo de voçorocamento nesta paisagem. Foram selecionadas as bacias mais próximas à calha principal do rio Paraíba do Sul e foram plotadas (em imagem de satélite, com método de fotointerpretação) todas as voçorocas identificadas nesta área. A distribuição espacial de voçorocas foi comparada com outros dados da região (unidades litológicas, cobertura e uso e aspectos morfométricos do relevo). Ao todo foram plotadas 671 voçorocas. Destas 671, 99 (14,7 por cento) foram identificadas como resultado de cortes de estrada e 572 (85,3 por cento) sem apararente relação direta com os cortes de estrada. O resultado da análise evidenciou a predominância deste processo sobre a unidade metassedimentar do gnaisse Paraíba do Sul, caracterizado por um material bastante friável quando decomposto. Além disso, a proximidade da calha principal do rio Paraíba do sul também exerce influência como nível de base regional, determinando o limite do processo erosivo. / [en] Gully erosion have been indicated in many researches as a consequence of the use of land use and land cover. However, it has been observed, in middle Paraíba do Sul river valley, that areas on the same type of current and past land use cover presents different behaviors regarding the occurence of gullies. This indicates that there are other factors that determine the occurenc of this process. The factors that may influence the diferencial distribution of the gully erosion process in this landscape were investigated. Initially, the watersheds closest to the main waterway of the Paraíba do Sul river were selected and all gullies were identified in this área. The spatial distribution of gullies was compared with other data of the region (lithologic units structure, land use cover and morphometric aspects of relief). In all, 671 gullies were plotted. Of these 671, 99 (14,7 percent) were identified as resulto f roads, and 572 (85,3 percent) with no apparent direct relation to this. The result of the analysis evidenced that the predominance of gully erosion is on the metassedimentary lithologic unit of the Paraiba do Sul gneiss. This lithologic unit is characterized by a very friable material when decomposed. In addition, the proximity of the main channel of the Paraiba do Sul river also exerts influences as a regional base level, determining the limit of the erosive process.

To study the history of processes that shape the Earth’s surface, geologists look for markers in the landscape that they can date and use to measure change. Rivers leave such markers in their deposits and terrace landforms and in the overall shape of their elevation profile from head to toe. This thesis uses luminescence and cosmogenic methods to date the sediment in terraces to determine when the river deposited it. Field mapping and global positioning system (GPS) surveying are also used to measure the distance between terrace levels to quantify how much change has occurred. This study seeks to answer questions about when, how quickly, and why streams near Moab in Utah’s Canyonlands region have incised into bedrock. It seeks also to determine the history, rates, and patterns of the active and incremental sinking of Moab and Spanish valleys. The results from this work show that the incision of canyons along Mill and Pack creeks upstream from Moab accelerated around 200,000 years ago to between 0.44 and 0.62 millimeters per year (mm/yr). The sinking of Moab and Spanish valleys also appears to have quickened around the same time and has occurred at up to 1.35 mm/yr in Moab Valley and around 0.45 mm/yr in Spanish Valley over the last 100,000 years. The Kayenta Heights fault zone (KHFZ) accommodates part of the sinking of Moab Valley and has slipped at an average rate of 0.44 mm/yr in the last 100,000 years. This study’s mapping of the length and width of individual fault strands supports prior interpretations that the KHFZ does not pose an earthquake hazard, though it can still be expected to produce active rock fall and rupture the ground surface locally. That the sinking of Moab and Spanish valleys and the down-cutting of the upstream canyons has occurred at similar rates, and may indeed have sped up at a similar time in the past, indicates a linkage of the two processes. This is consistent with an existing hypothesis that Moab and Spanish valleys are sinking because groundwater is dissolving the buried salt deposits and transporting them out through the Colorado River. This process is able to continue because as the Colorado River and its tributaries incise lower into the landscape, groundwater follows and can reach greater depths in the salt deposits. The results of this study paint a picture of the recent and accelerated sinking of Moab and Spanish valleys, which has occurred jointly with incision of the regional drainage network. This acceleration of incision, which has been documented throughout the Canyonlands region, may relate to the Colorado River’s carving of Grand Canyon around 6 million years ago or may have come from a more recent and unknown downstream source.