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Thesis (M.S.)--University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1982. / Typescript. eContent provider-neutral record in process. Description based on print version record. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 43-45).

Thesis (M.P.H.M.)--Mahidol University, 1999.

It is well established that an effective way to schedule knowledge of results (KR) during practice to facilitate motor learning is to allow the learner to control their KR delivery, termed self-controlled KR, rather than imposing the same schedule on the learner without choice, termed yoked KR. The learning advantages of self-controlled KR schedules have been attributed to motivational influences and/or information-processing activities with numerous researchers favouring the motivational perspective in recent years. However, many findings currently exist that are difficult to reconcile using a (purely) motivational influences explanation. For this dissertation, three experiments were conducted that aimed to better understand the learning advantages of self-controlled KR schedules from an information-processing perspective. Chapter 2 of this dissertation provides further evidence that the learning benefits of self-controlled KR schedules depend on the option of completing the decision to receive KR after a motor response. The option of making the KR decision after a trial, rather than before a trial was suggested to allow the learner to request KR only when a comparison between estimated and actual error would maximize the informational value of the KR received. This in turn would be expected to strengthen one’s error detection capabilities. This was supported by retention and transfer data where a more accurate ability to estimate one’s performance in the absence of KR was found in the two self-controlled groups that were able to make a KR decision after a trial. In addition, open-ended questions regarding the strategies used for requesting KR during practice were administered at the midpoint and end of practice. An inductive thematic analysis (Chapter 3) of the self-reported KR strategies generated five themes and it was noted that strategy use changes as a function of practice. That is, the dominant strategy used during the first half of practice was different from that used during the second half of practice. Based on the results presented in Chapters 2 and 3, Chapter 4 provides evidence that the KR-delay interval is a critical time period for reaping the learning benefits of self-controlled KR schedules. Specifically, having participants engage in an interpolated activity during the KR-delay interval eliminated the effectiveness of self-controlled KR schedules for motor learning. It is argued that the interpolated activity interfered with the processing of response-produced feedback upon movement completion that are critical for determining whether receiving KR on a given trial would provide a meaningful learning experience. Lastly, Chapter 5 provides evidence that suggests the primary motor cortex (M1) may not have a significant role in the learning advantages of self-controlled KR schedules. However, a caveat of this conclusion is that the learning benefits of practicing with a self-controlled KR schedule were negligible. Taken together, the results presented in this dissertation suggest that informational factors associated with the processing of response-produced feedback and KR for the development of one’s error-detection capabilities, rather than motivational influences are more critical for the learning advantages of self-controlled KR schedules.

O objetivo do estudo foi investigar os efeitos do autoestabelecimento de metas na aprendizagem de habilidades motoras realizada com diferentes regimes de CR. Para tanto, três experimentos foram realizados, todos eles com três grupos distintos - meta autoestabelecida espontaneamente e de forma induzida e meta externamente controlada ou atribuída - para investigar a aprendizagem da habilidade motora de subir a escada de Bachman, realizada com CR, sem CR e com CR autocontrolado. Os grupos de cada experimento foram tratados como variáveis independentes. Os desempenhos dos participantes foram considerados como variáveis dependentes. As observações originais foram obtidas no ambiente de coleta do experimento por meio da anotação dos degraus subidos pelo aprendiz em cada tentativa. Os desempenhos foram analisados por meio da taxa de desempenho (TxD) caracterizada pelo número de degraus subidos dividido pelo número de degraus possíveis de serem alcançados. Foi realizado um ANOVA two way (3 grupos X 6 blocos) para medidas repetidas no fator bloco. Os dados foram organizados em blocos de 10 tentativas, sendo dois blocos referentes à fase de aquisição (AQ1, AQ30) e dois blocos referentes a cada teste (RET1, RET2, TR1, TR2). Os resultados em todos os experimentos foram semelhantes e os grupos não se diferenciaram entre si. Conclui-se que o processo de aprendizagem dos participantes que estabeleceram suas próprias metas e dos que tiveram a meta atribuída foi semelhante. Assim sendo, o estabelecimento de metas em si, seja atribuída ou externamente controlada (grupo yoked), autoestabelecida espontaneamente ou de forma induzida é favorável para a aprendizagem da tarefa de subir a escada de Bachman, e isso independe se o CR é fornecido, não é fornecido ou é autocontrolado. Conclui-se que pelo fato de tanto o estabelecimento de metas quanto o CR serem reconhecidos como fatores motivacionais eles se neutralizaram e não afetaram a aprendizagem motora de subir a escada de Bachman / This study aimed to investigate the effects of self-set goal on motor skills learning with different KR regimens. Three experiments were carried out, all of them with three distinct groups - spontaneously self-set goal and spontaneously self-directed goal and externally controlled or assigned goal - to investigate the learning of Bachman ladder climbing motor ability, performed with KR, without KR and with self-controlled KR. Groups of each experiment were the independent variables. Participants\' performances were the dependent variables. The original observations were obtained at the experiment data collection environment by notes of the steps reached by the apprentice in each attempt. Performances were analyzed by performance rate (TxD), obtained from the ratio between the number of reached steps and the highest possible step. Two way ANOVA (3 groups X 6 blocks) was performed for repeated measures in the block factor. Data were organized in blocks of 10 trials, two blocks referring to the acquisition phase (AQ1, AQ30) and two blocks referring to retention and transference tests, respectively (RET1, RET2, TR1, TR2). Results in all experiments were similar and its groups not differed from each other. In conclusion, the learning process of the participants who established their own goals and those who had the assigned goal was similar. Thus, goal setting itself, whether attributed or externally controlled (yoked group), self-established spontaneously or in an induced manner is beneficial for learning the Bachman ladder climbing task, regardless if KR is provided or not or if is self-controlled. It is conclued that as the goal setting and KR are both motivational factors, their effects were neutralized and didn\'t affect the motor learning of Bachman ladder task

A visão de processo adaptativo aplicada à aprendizagem pressupõe quebra da estabilidade, necessária para o aprendiz alcançar níveis superiores de complexidade. Dessa forma, instabilidade, incerteza, desordem e erro podem se constituir características positivas do processo. Considerando o CR como fonte de ordem/desordem, o presente trabalho teve o propósito de investigar quais regimes de freqüência (33%, 66% e 100%) e precisão (geral e específico) de CR favorecem o processo adaptativo na aquisição de uma habilidade motora conjugada de preensão manual com posicionamento linear. Cento e vinte adultos universitários de 18 a 39 anos (média de 25 e desvio padrão de 4,5 anos) foram alocados a seis grupos de 20 sujeitos (dez do sexo masculino e dez do sexo feminino). Na primeira fase do estudo (estabilização), os sujeitos executaram a tarefa com CR verbal, que versou apenas sobre a tentativa recém finalizada de modo a informar sobre o alcance de 20% da força máxima e 35 cm de deslocamento. O critério para encerramento dessa fase foi a execução de duas tentativas dentro de uma faixa de tolerância de erro. Na fase de adaptação, os sujeitos foram testados em 15 tentativas sem CR na mesma tarefa, porém com a perturbação ambiental de uma força de translação de aproximadamente 2 kgf, no sentido contrário do movimento. O equipamento desenvolvido e utilizado foi o Aparelho Eletromagnético de Posicionamento Linear com Dinamometria. As tentativas foram executadas com o membro superior não dominante e com oclusão visual. Da força aplicada no dinamômetro e do deslocamento do cursor originaram-se as medidas de erro: absoluto (EA), constante (EC) e variável (EV). Os resultados da fase de estabilização mostraram indicações de que CR freqüente e específico proporcionou melhor desempenho. Além disso, os grupos, em ambas as demandas (força e distância), reduziram o nível de erros de um ponto inicial a um ponto posterior no tempo com tendência exponencial, o que evidencia a ocorrência de aprendizagem da tarefa. Com base nos resultados da segunda fase, a adaptação à perturbação introduzida não se condicionou às manipulações de freqüência e precisão de CR da fase de estabilização. Os dados de ambas as demandas se ajustaram a um modelo caracterizado pela presença de variância substancial no momento inicial. Não obstante, houve heterogeneidade de resposta ao longo das tentativas na demanda de distância. Os resultados de ambas as demandas da tarefa evidenciaram tracking de baixo a moderado, ou seja, não houve estabilidade de desempenho dos sujeitos, o que implica em possibilidade muito reduzida para prever o desempenho de cada grupo e para cada sujeito. Uma quantidade muito reduzida de sujeitos apresentou não aleatoriedade de erros, reveladora de alguma tendência ou estratégia de desempenho consistente ao longo das tentativas. Pode-se concluir que não se faz necessário reduzir excessivamente a incerteza por intermédio de regimes de CR com muita freqüência e precisão. / Motor learning is a ciclic, dynamic and adaptive process, in which motor skills are stabilised and used in more complex situations. To understand motor skill acquisition as an adaptive process, it is necessary to break down the achieved stability in order to reach higher levels of complexity. Thus, instability, uncertainty, disorder, and error might act as positive features in this process. Considering KR as a source of order/disorder, this study aimed to investigate which frequency (33%, 66% e 100%) and precision (general and specific) KR schedules benefit the adaptive process in the acquisition of a linear positioning and manual force control combination motor task. A hundred and twenty undergraduate students ranging from 18 to 39 years (mean age = 25 yr., standard deviation = 4.5 yr.) were randomly assigned to six groups of 20 subjects each (ten male and ten female). In the first phase of the experiment (stabilisation), the subjects performed the motor task receiving verbal KR about the immediately finished trial that provided information about accomplishing the goal of 20% of the maximum force and 35 cm of displacement. The criterion to complete this phase was to perform two consecutive trials inside the error bandwidth. In the adaptation phase, 15 non-KR trials were performed on the same task, but with an environmental perturbation involving a traction force of about 2 kgf in the opposite direction of the movement. It was developed and used an apparatus enabling a linear positioning combined with a manual force control task. The subjects performed blindfolded and with the non-dominant hand. Absolute, constant, and variable errors measures were used to analyse the learning process. According to the stabilisation phase results, there were evidences that frequent and specific KR produced improvement of performance. The groups, on both task requirements (force and distance), reduced the level of errors from an initial to a posterior point in time with exponential trend, which is an evidence of learning occurrence. Results from the second phase indicated that the adaptation to the introduced perturbation was not related to KR frequency and precision provided in the stabilization phase. Data from both requirements fitted in a model with significant variance at the beginning. However, there was response heterogeneity throughout the trials in the distance requirement. Moreover, results revealed from low to moderate tracking, that is, subjects did not perform with stability, what reduces the probability to preview the performance of each group and each subject. A few amount of subjects exhibited absence of error randomness, which could express some performance trend, that is, a consistent strategy along trials. It can be concluded that it is not necessary to excessively diminish uncertainty by means of KR schedules with high frequency and precision.

Nas últimas décadas, um número considerável de pesquisadores tem direcionado seus esforços na compreensão do papel do autocontrole (liberdade de escolha) do aprendiz em relação ao fornecimento de feedback, mais especificamente o conhecimento de resultados (CR), na aquisição de habilidades motoras. Os resultados, em sua grande maioria, têm revelado benefícios comparativamente à aprendizagem em condições de prática externamente controladas (yoked). No entanto, um grande desafio continua a ser a explicação dos mecanismos e processos que estão à retaguarda dos benefícios observados. Nesse contexto, uma variável que merece atenção diz respeito à frequência de CR solicitado pelo aprendiz. Apesar de ter sido, historicamente, objeto de intensas pesquisas em condições externamente controladas, os efeitos das distintas frequências de CR em condições autocontroladas não têm sido levados em consideração pela justificativa de que a possibilidade de escolha, por si só, garante ganhos na aprendizagem motora. Diante desse cenário, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo investigar os efeitos do CR autocontrolado na aprendizagem de uma tarefa de timing coincidente, com enfoque na frequência e no momento de sua solicitação. Para isso, foi inicialmente realizado um experimento para construir um banco de dados a ser explorado posteriormente por meio de perguntas específicas que deram origem a quatro estudos. Participaram 96 adultos de ambos os sexos, sem experiência prévia na tarefa utilizada que consistiu em sincronizar o click de um botão à chegada de um alvo móvel - em desaceleração constante e ocluído na porção final do deslocamento - a um alvo fixo na tela de um computador. Eles realizaram 90 tentativas na fase de aquisição, sendo que os na condição autocontrolada tinham a possibilidade de escolha de CR a cada tentativa e os na condição yoked tiveram seu fornecimento pareado em frequência e momento à condição autocontrolada. Após 24 horas, foram realizados os testes de retenção e transferência (maior tempo de oclusão visual do alvo móvel), com vinte tentativas cada, sem fornecimento de CR. O Estudo 1 teve como objetivo investigar os efeitos de diferentes frequências de CR autocontrolado. Foram analisados grupos autocontrolados (n = 12) com maior (GA Mais; média = 97%), menor (GA Menos; média = 32,5%) e intermediária (GA Intermediário; média = 74%) frequência de solicitações na fase de aquisição. Os resultados revelaram que os grupos com frequências reduzidas foram superiores nos testes de aprendizagem, em comparação ao GA Mais. O Estudo 2 teve como objetivo investigar os efeitos das frequências de CR, numa condição externamente controlada, pareadas a uma condição autocontrolada. Os resultados mostraram que os três grupos yoked com frequências de CR pareadas aos dos participantes do Estudo 1 não diferiram nos testes de aprendizagem. O Estudo 3 comparou as diferentes frequências de solicitação de CR em condição autocontrolada e externamente controlada. A Análise 1, referente aos grupos com maior frequência de CR, revelou superioridade do grupo yoked nos testes de aprendizagem, em comparação ao grupo autocontrolado. A Análise 2, relativa aos grupos com menor frequência de CR, não mostrou diferenças nos testes de aprendizagem. A Análise 3, referente aos grupos intermediários, encontrou superioridade do grupo autocontrolado nos testes de aprendizagem em relação ao seu yoked. O Estudo 4 teve como objetivo investigar o comportamento individual dos participantes numa condição autocontrolada, com foco na magnitude do erro das tentativas solicitadas. Os resultados mostraram que os grupos autocontrolados solicitaram CR após seus melhores e piores desempenhos indiferenciadamente, visto que as estratégias de solicitação indicaram nem sempre estar relacionadas à magnitude do erro. O conjunto dos estudos permite concluir que as escolhas realizadas, e não somente a possibilidade de escolher, parece definir os benefícios do autocontrole de CR na aprendizagem motora / In the last decades, a considerable number of researchers have focused their efforts on understanding the role of learner\'s self-control in requesting feedback, more specifically knowledge of results (KR), in motor skills acquisition. The results, for the most part, have shown benefits compared to learning in externally controlled practice conditions (yoked). However, a major challenge, still, is the explanation of the mechanisms and processes underlying the observed benefits. In this context, a variable that deserves attention is the frequency of KR requested by the learner. Although, historically, it has been the object of intense research under externally controlled conditions, the effects of different KR frequencies in self-controlled conditions have not been considered provided that the possibility of choice, on its own, ensures gains in motor learning. Given this scenario, the present work had as objective to investigate the effects of the self-controlled KR on the learning of a coincident timing task, focusing on the frequency and the moment of its request. For this, an experiment was conducted to construct a database to be explored later through specific questions. This resulted in four studies. Ninety-six adults of both sexes, with no prior experience in the task that consisted of pressing a button in coincidence to the arrival of a moving target to a fixed target on the screen of a computer. The moving target moved with constant deceleration and was occluded in the final portion of the displacement. The participants performed 90 trials in the acquisition phase. Participants in the self-controlled condition could choose, at each trial, whether they would observe the KR while those in the yoked condition had their paired supply in frequency and moment to the self-controlled condition. After 24 hours, the retention and transfer tests (greater time of visual occlusion of the moving target) were performed, with 20 trials each, without KR supply. Study 1 had the objective to investigate the effects of different frequencies of self-controlled KR. Selfcontrolled groups (n = 12) were analyzed by frequency of requests higher (GA More, average = 97%), lower (GA Less, average = 32.5%) and intermediate (GA Intermediate, average = 74%) in the acquisition phase. The results showed that GA Less and GA Intermediate performed better in the learning tests, compared to GA More. Study 2 aimed to investigate the effects of KR frequencies, in an externally controlled condition, paired with a self-controlled condition. The results showed that the three yoked groups with KR frequencies did not differ in the learning tests. Study 3 compared the different frequencies of KR request in a selfcontrolled and externally controlled condition. Analysis 1, referring to the groups with the higher KR frequency, revealed the superiority of the yoked group in the learning tests, compared to the self-controlled group. Analysis 2, concerning groups with lower KR frequency, did not show differences in the learning tests. Analysis 3, referring to the intermediate groups, found superiority of the self-controlled group in the learning tests in relation to their yoked. Study 4 aimed to investigate the individual behavior of the participants in a self-controlled condition, focusing on the magnitude of the error of the requested trials. The results showed that the self-controlled groups requested KR after their best and worst performances indifferently, since the solicitation strategies indicated were not always related to the magnitude of the error. This set of studies allows us to conclude that the choices made, and not only the possibility to choose, seems to define the benefits of self-control KR in motor learning

Nas últimas décadas, um número considerável de pesquisadores tem direcionado seus esforços na compreensão do papel do autocontrole (liberdade de escolha) do aprendiz em relação ao fornecimento de feedback, mais especificamente o conhecimento de resultados (CR), na aquisição de habilidades motoras. Os resultados, em sua grande maioria, têm revelado benefícios comparativamente à aprendizagem em condições de prática externamente controladas (yoked). No entanto, um grande desafio continua a ser a explicação dos mecanismos e processos que estão à retaguarda dos benefícios observados. Nesse contexto, uma variável que merece atenção diz respeito à frequência de CR solicitado pelo aprendiz. Apesar de ter sido, historicamente, objeto de intensas pesquisas em condições externamente controladas, os efeitos das distintas frequências de CR em condições autocontroladas não têm sido levados em consideração pela justificativa de que a possibilidade de escolha, por si só, garante ganhos na aprendizagem motora. Diante desse cenário, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo investigar os efeitos do CR autocontrolado na aprendizagem de uma tarefa de timing coincidente, com enfoque na frequência e no momento de sua solicitação. Para isso, foi inicialmente realizado um experimento para construir um banco de dados a ser explorado posteriormente por meio de perguntas específicas que deram origem a quatro estudos. Participaram 96 adultos de ambos os sexos, sem experiência prévia na tarefa utilizada que consistiu em sincronizar o click de um botão à chegada de um alvo móvel - em desaceleração constante e ocluído na porção final do deslocamento - a um alvo fixo na tela de um computador. Eles realizaram 90 tentativas na fase de aquisição, sendo que os na condição autocontrolada tinham a possibilidade de escolha de CR a cada tentativa e os na condição yoked tiveram seu fornecimento pareado em frequência e momento à condição autocontrolada. Após 24 horas, foram realizados os testes de retenção e transferência (maior tempo de oclusão visual do alvo móvel), com vinte tentativas cada, sem fornecimento de CR. O Estudo 1 teve como objetivo investigar os efeitos de diferentes frequências de CR autocontrolado. Foram analisados grupos autocontrolados (n = 12) com maior (GA Mais; média = 97%), menor (GA Menos; média = 32,5%) e intermediária (GA Intermediário; média = 74%) frequência de solicitações na fase de aquisição. Os resultados revelaram que os grupos com frequências reduzidas foram superiores nos testes de aprendizagem, em comparação ao GA Mais. O Estudo 2 teve como objetivo investigar os efeitos das frequências de CR, numa condição externamente controlada, pareadas a uma condição autocontrolada. Os resultados mostraram que os três grupos yoked com frequências de CR pareadas aos dos participantes do Estudo 1 não diferiram nos testes de aprendizagem. O Estudo 3 comparou as diferentes frequências de solicitação de CR em condição autocontrolada e externamente controlada. A Análise 1, referente aos grupos com maior frequência de CR, revelou superioridade do grupo yoked nos testes de aprendizagem, em comparação ao grupo autocontrolado. A Análise 2, relativa aos grupos com menor frequência de CR, não mostrou diferenças nos testes de aprendizagem. A Análise 3, referente aos grupos intermediários, encontrou superioridade do grupo autocontrolado nos testes de aprendizagem em relação ao seu yoked. O Estudo 4 teve como objetivo investigar o comportamento individual dos participantes numa condição autocontrolada, com foco na magnitude do erro das tentativas solicitadas. Os resultados mostraram que os grupos autocontrolados solicitaram CR após seus melhores e piores desempenhos indiferenciadamente, visto que as estratégias de solicitação indicaram nem sempre estar relacionadas à magnitude do erro. O conjunto dos estudos permite concluir que as escolhas realizadas, e não somente a possibilidade de escolher, parece definir os benefícios do autocontrole de CR na aprendizagem motora / In the last decades, a considerable number of researchers have focused their efforts on understanding the role of learner\'s self-control in requesting feedback, more specifically knowledge of results (KR), in motor skills acquisition. The results, for the most part, have shown benefits compared to learning in externally controlled practice conditions (yoked). However, a major challenge, still, is the explanation of the mechanisms and processes underlying the observed benefits. In this context, a variable that deserves attention is the frequency of KR requested by the learner. Although, historically, it has been the object of intense research under externally controlled conditions, the effects of different KR frequencies in self-controlled conditions have not been considered provided that the possibility of choice, on its own, ensures gains in motor learning. Given this scenario, the present work had as objective to investigate the effects of the self-controlled KR on the learning of a coincident timing task, focusing on the frequency and the moment of its request. For this, an experiment was conducted to construct a database to be explored later through specific questions. This resulted in four studies. Ninety-six adults of both sexes, with no prior experience in the task that consisted of pressing a button in coincidence to the arrival of a moving target to a fixed target on the screen of a computer. The moving target moved with constant deceleration and was occluded in the final portion of the displacement. The participants performed 90 trials in the acquisition phase. Participants in the self-controlled condition could choose, at each trial, whether they would observe the KR while those in the yoked condition had their paired supply in frequency and moment to the self-controlled condition. After 24 hours, the retention and transfer tests (greater time of visual occlusion of the moving target) were performed, with 20 trials each, without KR supply. Study 1 had the objective to investigate the effects of different frequencies of self-controlled KR. Selfcontrolled groups (n = 12) were analyzed by frequency of requests higher (GA More, average = 97%), lower (GA Less, average = 32.5%) and intermediate (GA Intermediate, average = 74%) in the acquisition phase. The results showed that GA Less and GA Intermediate performed better in the learning tests, compared to GA More. Study 2 aimed to investigate the effects of KR frequencies, in an externally controlled condition, paired with a self-controlled condition. The results showed that the three yoked groups with KR frequencies did not differ in the learning tests. Study 3 compared the different frequencies of KR request in a selfcontrolled and externally controlled condition. Analysis 1, referring to the groups with the higher KR frequency, revealed the superiority of the yoked group in the learning tests, compared to the self-controlled group. Analysis 2, concerning groups with lower KR frequency, did not show differences in the learning tests. Analysis 3, referring to the intermediate groups, found superiority of the self-controlled group in the learning tests in relation to their yoked. Study 4 aimed to investigate the individual behavior of the participants in a self-controlled condition, focusing on the magnitude of the error of the requested trials. The results showed that the self-controlled groups requested KR after their best and worst performances indifferently, since the solicitation strategies indicated were not always related to the magnitude of the error. This set of studies allows us to conclude that the choices made, and not only the possibility to choose, seems to define the benefits of self-control KR in motor learning

Master of Applied Science / The aim of this investigation was to investigate the effects of computer-based visual feedback in the teaching of singing. Pitch accuracy, a readily-measured parameter of the singing voice, was used in this study to gauge changes in singing for groups with and without visual feedback. The study investigated whether the style of feedback affects the amount of learning achieved, and whether the provision of concurrent visual feedback hampers the simultaneous performance of the singing task. The investigation used a baseline–intervention–post-test between-groups design. Participants of all skill levels were randomly assigned to a control group or one of two experimental groups – with all participants given one hour of singing training. At intervention, the two experimental groups were offered one of two different displays of real-time visual feedback on their vocal pitch accuracy, while control participants had a non-interactive display. All sessions were recorded, and the vocal exercise patterns performed at baseline, intervention and post-test phases were acoustically analysed for pitch accuracy. Questionnaires assessed both general health and the amount of singing and music training of all participants; people in the two experimental groups were also given a further questionnaire about the visual feedback. The results indicate that visual feedback improves pitch accuracy in singing. Cognitive load related to the decoding of visual information was a factor at intervention. At post-test, the two groups who had used real-time visual feedback demonstrated marked improvement on their initial pitch accuracy. There was no significant difference between the results of participants from the two experimental groups, although the participants with some background in singing training showed greater improvement using a simpler visual feedback design. The findings suggest that a hybrid approach integrating standard singing teaching practices with real-time visual feedback of aspects of the singing voice may improve learning.

Previous studies of physical guidance (PG - physically constraining error during practice of a motor task) have found it to be ineffective in enhancing motor learning. However, most studies have used a highly constraining form of physical guidance that may have encouraged undue dependency. In addition, previous research has not fully considered the interaction between visual feedback and PG, and many of the studies have failed to use standard delayed retention tests with knowledge of results unavailable (no-KR). The current experiment examine the effects of varying levels of constraint in PG, as well as the interaction of PG and visual guidance (VG), using no-KR retention tests. This study involved 99 subjects divided into nine acquisition trial condition groups, forming from a 3 x 3 factorial design with factors of PG x VG, each presented at levels designated as tight, bandwidth, or none. Subjects undertook a two-dimensional pattern drawing task with no KR, PG, or VG as a pre-test, before completing 100 practice trials under one of the nine conditions. The same test was given as a retention test (immediately after practice) and as a delayed retention test (two days later). A transfer test, using a different pattern, was also administered on the second day. Almost all groups performed better on the immediate transfer test than they had on the pre-test. However, after two days only three groups (PG bandwidth-VG tight, PG none-VG bandwidth, and PG none-VG none) retained this improvement and only two groups (PG bandwidth-VG bandwidth and PG none-VG none) performed significantly better on the transfer task than their pre-test. It is proposed that bandwidth guidance generally promotes learning and that bandwidth physical guidance may enhance proprioceptive cues. Independent of PG and VG effects, KR (an overall error score) also facilitated learning.