Parkinson’s disease is a disorder mainly characterized by progressive degeneration of dopamine producing neurons in the substantia nigra of the midbrain. The most commonly used treatment strategy is to pharmacologically restore the lost function by the administration of the dopaminergic precursor L-DOPA. Another treatment strategy is to replace the degenerated neurons with immature fetal ventral mesencephalic tissue, or ultimately stem cell-derived tissue. Grafting trials have, however, revealed poor reinnervation capacity of the grafts, leaving much of the striata dopamine-denervated. An additional drawback is the upcoming of dyskinesia (involuntary movements), a phenomenon also observed during L-DOPA treatment of Parkinson’s disease patients. Attempts to characterize nerve fiber formation from dopamine neurons have demonstrated that the nerve fibers are formed in two morphologically diverse outgrowth patterns, one early outgrowth seen in the absence of astrocytes and one later appearing outgrowth seen in co-existence with astrocytes. The overall objective of this thesis has been to study the dopaminergic outgrowth including guidance of nerve fiber formation, and to look into the mechanisms of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia. The first paper in this thesis characterizes the different outgrowth patterns described above and their relation to different glial cells. The study demonstrated the two different outgrowth patterns to be a general phenomenon, applying not only to dopamine neurons. Attempts of characterization revealed no difference of origin in terms of dopaminergic subpopulations, i.e. A9 or A10, between the outgrowth patterns. Furthermore, the “roller-drum” technique was found optimal for studying the dual outgrowth sequences. The second and the third paper also utilized the “roller-drum” technique in order to promote both patterns of neuronal fiber formation. The effects of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) on the formation of dopamine nerve fibers, was investigated. Cultures prepared from gdnf knockout mice revealed that dopaminergic neurons survive and form nerve fiber outgrowth in the absence of GDNF. The dopaminergic nerve fibers exhibited an outgrowth pattern consistent with that previous observed in rat. GDNF was found to exert effect on the glial-associated outgrowth whereas the non-glial-associated was not affected. Astrocytic proliferation was inhibited using cytosine β-D-arabinofuranoside, resulting in reduced glial-associated outgrowth. The non-glial-associated dopaminergic outgrowth was on the other hand promoted, and was retained over longer time in culture. Furthermore, the non-glial-associated nerve fibers were found to target the fetal frontal cortex. Different developmental stages were shown to promote and affect the outgrowths differently. Taken together, these data indicate and state the importance of astrocytes and growth factors for neuronal nerve fiber formation and guidance. It also stresses the importance of fetal donor age at the time for transplantation. The fourth and fifth studies focus on L-DOPA dynamics and utilize in vivo chronoamperometry. In study four, 6-OHDA dopamine-depleted rats were exposed to chronic L-DOPA treatment and then rated as dyskinetic or non-dyskinetic. The electrochemical recordings demonstrated reduced KCl-evoked release in the intact striatum after chronic L-DOPA treatment. Time for maximal dopamine concentration after L-DOPA administration was found to be shorter in dyskinetic animals than in non-dyskinetic animals. The serotonergic nerve fiber content in the striatum was evaluated and brains from dyskinetic animals were found to exhibit significantly higher nerve fiber density compared to non-dyskinetic animals. Furthermore, the mechanisms behind the conversion of L-DOPA to dopamine in 6-OHDA dopamine-depleted rats were studied. Local administration of L-DOPA in the striatum increased the KCl-evoked dopamine release in the intact striatum. Acute application of L-DOPA resulted sometimes in a rapid conversion to dopamine, probably without vesicle packaging. This type of direct conversion is presumably occurring in non-neuronal tissue. Furthermore, KCl-evoked dopamine releases were present upon local application of L-DOPA in the dopamine-depleted striatum, suggesting that the conversion to dopamine took place elsewhere, than in dopaminergic nerve fibers. In conclusion, these studies state the importance of astrocytes for neuronal nerve fiber formation and elucidate the complexity of L-DOPA conversion in the brain.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder producing a clinical syndrome of bradykinesia, rigidity and resting tremor. These motor symptoms appear due to the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and loss of dopamine in the striatum, which subsequently leads to an imbalance of the basal ganglia motor circuit. The most effective pharmacological treatment for PD is L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA), the immediate metabolic precursor of dopamine, which effectively restores motor function. L-DOPA is catabolised into dopamine and replaces neurotransmitter loss in PD. However, long-term L-DOPA treatment leads to abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs), such as L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LID), which reduces the quality of life in PD patients. Currently, there are no reliable pharmacological treatments for these motor complications. Clinical and preclinical studies have shown that development and expression of LID is linked to unregulated dopamine release and plasticity-induced changes of striatal dopaminergic and non-dopaminergic signalling pathways. The activities of these pathways can be modulated by neurotransmitter receptors of a specific classification, the G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family. In turn, GPCRs are regulated by certain endogenous proteins, the regulators of G-protein signalling (RGS) proteins. Numerous RGS protein subtypes are expressed in the striatum but their roles in PD and LID remain poorly understood. Given the modulatory function of RGS proteins in the striatum, these endogenous factors may have pathophysiological roles in the expression of motor symptoms in PD and LID. The studies presented in this thesis investigated the roles of RGS proteins in the unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-lesioned rat model of PD and LID. Rats received unilateral 6-OHDA lesions of the right medial forebrain bundle to induce severe dopamine denervation. L-DOPA/benserazide (6/15 mg/kg) was then administered once daily for at least 21 days to induce stable abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs). In Chapter 2 of this thesis, increased levels of RGS2 and RGS4 mRNA were found in the rostral striatum of the unilateral 6-OHDA-lesioned rat model of LID. Moreover, elevated levels of RGS4 mRNA were specific to sensorimotor regions and positively correlated with AIMs severity. These molecular and behavioural data suggest that RGS4 proteins are involved in the expression of LID. In Chapters 3 and 4, behavioural studies conducted in the unilateral 6-OHDA-lesioned rat model of LID showed that acute inhibition of striatal RGS4 proteins reduced the expression of AIMs and improved overall motor function. Moreover, repeated de novo treatment with RGS4 protein inhibitors, in combination with L-DOPA, attenuated the development of AIMs and reduced the overexpression of preproenkephalin-B, a molecular marker of LID. These behavioural and molecular data suggest that blockade of RGS4 proteins can reduce the induction of LID. In Chapter 5, in vivo microdialysis conducted in the unilateral 6-OHDA-lesioned rat model of LID showed that systemic administration of RGS4 protein inhibitors, in combination with L-DOPA, attenuated unregulated striatal dopamine efflux. These data suggest that RGS4 proteins may regulate specific G-protein coupled receptors, such as 5-HT1A receptors, that modulate striatal dopamine release. In conclusion, the work presented in this thesis shows that RGS4 proteins play a pathophysiological role in the expression and development of LID. These proteins could mediate regulation of key neurotransmitter receptors involved in LID, making them a potential therapeutic target for the development of future treatments.

Dopamine deficiency in the striatum is a central feature of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Symptomatic therapy with L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) aims at restoring physiological dopaminergic neurotransmission within the brain. Unfortunately, current treatment paradigms fail to achieve this goal, which leads to the emergence of motor complications, secondary to long term L-DOPA administration, including dyskinesia and wearing-OFF, and non-motor symptoms related to disease progression, including neuropsychiatric symptoms such as psychosis. However, degenerative changes in PD are not limited to the dopaminergic system, but also affect the serotonergic system. There is increasing evidence suggesting an involvement of the serotonergic system in the pathophysiology of both motor and non-motor complications of PD. The work presented in this Thesis has investigated the serotonergic and dopaminergic systems in PD, by performing post mortem studies in the brains of PD patients and of parkinsonian non-human primates (NHPs), and by performing behavioural studies in the parkinsonian rat and NHP models of PD. The main conclusions presented are that: 1) serotonergic type 1A (5-HT1A) and 2A (5-HT2A) levels are altered in the brains of dyskinetic parkinsonian NHPs, suggesting abnormal 5-HT1A- and 5-HT2A-mediated neurotransmission in dyskinesia; 2) 5-HT2A receptor levels are altered in the brains of PD patients with visual hallucinations (VH), suggesting abnormal 5-HT2A-mediated neurotransmission in VH; 3) some of the anti-dyskinetic actions attributed to stimulating 5-HT1A or antagonising 5-HT2A receptors might in fact be due to an antagonist action at D4 receptors, as antagonising D4 receptors significantly alleviates L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in rat and NHP models of PD; 4) concurrent inhibition of the serotonin and dopamine transporters (SERT and DAT, respectively) enhances duration of L-DOPA-induced ON-time in the parkinsonian NHP. However, the ratio of SERT/ DAT inhibition appears crucial in determining the quality of this extra ON-time; SERT > DAT inhibition exacerbates the severity of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia, whereas SERT = DAT and DAT > SERT inhibition do not worsen the severity of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia. Together these data extend our knowledge of the interaction between serotonin and dopamine, specifically as they relate to symptoms and side effects of dopamine replacement therapy in PD and highlight potential novel therapeutic approaches to PD.

Dopamine deficiency in the striatum is a central feature of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Symptomatic therapy with L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) aims at restoring physiological dopaminergic neurotransmission within the brain. Unfortunately, current treatment paradigms fail to achieve this goal, which leads to the emergence of motor complications, secondary to long term L-DOPA administration, including dyskinesia and wearing-OFF, and non-motor symptoms related to disease progression, including neuropsychiatric symptoms such as psychosis. However, degenerative changes in PD are not limited to the dopaminergic system, but also affect the serotonergic system. There is increasing evidence suggesting an involvement of the serotonergic system in the pathophysiology of both motor and non-motor complications of PD. The work presented in this Thesis has investigated the serotonergic and dopaminergic systems in PD, by performing post mortem studies in the brains of PD patients and of parkinsonian non-human primates (NHPs), and by performing behavioural studies in the parkinsonian rat and NHP models of PD. The main conclusions presented are that: 1) serotonergic type 1A (5-HT1A) and 2A (5-HT2A) levels are altered in the brains of dyskinetic parkinsonian NHPs, suggesting abnormal 5-HT1A- and 5-HT2A-mediated neurotransmission in dyskinesia; 2) 5-HT2A receptor levels are altered in the brains of PD patients with visual hallucinations (VH), suggesting abnormal 5-HT2A-mediated neurotransmission in VH; 3) some of the anti-dyskinetic actions attributed to stimulating 5-HT1A or antagonising 5-HT2A receptors might in fact be due to an antagonist action at D4 receptors, as antagonising D4 receptors significantly alleviates L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in rat and NHP models of PD; 4) concurrent inhibition of the serotonin and dopamine transporters (SERT and DAT, respectively) enhances duration of L-DOPA-induced ON-time in the parkinsonian NHP. However, the ratio of SERT/ DAT inhibition appears crucial in determining the quality of this extra ON-time; SERT > DAT inhibition exacerbates the severity of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia, whereas SERT = DAT and DAT > SERT inhibition do not worsen the severity of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia. Together these data extend our knowledge of the interaction between serotonin and dopamine, specifically as they relate to symptoms and side effects of dopamine replacement therapy in PD and highlight potential novel therapeutic approaches to PD.

A doença de Parkinson (DP) é a segunda doença neurodegenerativa que mais atinge a população mundial. O desenvolvimento dos prejuízos motores decorrentes da doença está relacionado a sua fisiopatologia, que promove principalmente a neurodegeneração dos neurônios dopaminérgicos da substância negra pars compacta. Estudos sugerem o envolvimento de vias inflamatórias exacerbando a morte celular na fisiopatologia da DP. O fenômeno neuroinflamatório é caracterizado pela ativação de diversas células do sistema nervoso central, como neurônios, micróglia e astrócitos, além dos principais mediadores pró- inflamatórios, que são a enzima ciclooxigenase-2 (COX-2), o fator de necrose tumoral-alfa (TNF-?), a interleucina 1? (IL-1?) e a interleucina 6 (IL-6), entre outros. Estes fatores estão presentes em estruturas neuroanatômicas como o estriado e substância negra pars compacta de indivíduos com a DP. O tratamento crônico com L-DOPA, o precursor do neurotransmissor dopamina, inicialmente gera uma redução da manifestação dos sintomas motores na maioria dos pacientes. Porém, após certo tempo de tratamento, ocorre o surgimento de complicações motoras, como a discinesia induzida por L-DOPA (LID - LDOPA-induced dyskinesia). O desenvolvimento e a manifestação da LID também podem acompanhar uma resposta inflamatória anormal. Dados do grupo sugerem a enzima COX-2 e as células gliais como mediadores da LID. Estudos apontam que fármacos que reduzem a LID modulam a expressão de COX-2. Nosso objetivo, portanto, foi caracterizar a presença de fatores/mecanismos pró-inflamatórios no estriado lesionado de camundongos tratados com LDOPA. Nossos resultados serão apresentados em três capítulos. No primeiro capítulo, empregamos o modelo de camundongos hemiparkinsonianos (lesionados com 6- hidroxidopamina) e tratamos com L-DOPA por diferentes períodos de tempo (1, 7, 14 e 21 dias) para analisarmos o surgimento de fatores inflamatórios no estriado, como a enzima COX-2, o fator nuclear kappa-B (NF-?B) e a expressão e atividade dos astrócitos e micróglia. No segundo capítulo, demonstramos o potencial destas células gliais em produzir citocinas e/ou glutamato após estímulo com os principais neurotransmissores envolvidos com a LID, a DA (ou seu precursor L-DOPA) e glutamato. No terceiro capítulo, demonstramos o potencial terapêutico de drogas usadas na clínica - com propriedades anti-inflamatórias - de reduzirem a LID previamente estabelecida. Para tal, utilizamos o canabidiol (princípio ativo da Cannabis, usado no tratamento para epilepsia, entre outros) e o celecoxibe (inibidor específico da atividade enzimática da COX-2). Este estudo corrobora a existência de um processo inflamatório no estriado lesionado de camundongos parkinsonianos, exacerbado pelo tratamento com L-DOPA. A enzima COX-2 pode ter um papel fundamental no desenvolvimento da LID. Adicionalmente, este trabalho sugere que drogas utilizadas clinicamente com ação anti-inflamatória podem se tornar possíveis ferramentas terapêuticas para a redução desta desordem. Desta forma, relacionamos a produção de fatores inflamatórios e a ativação de células gliais à perpetuação de uma atividade pós-sináptica estriatal anormal que ocasionam a \"má plasticidade\" típica da LID. / Parkinson\'s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease in world population. The development of motor impairments related to this disease occurs due to its pathophysiology, which mainly promotes the neurodegeneration of the dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Studies suggest the involvement of inflammatory pathways that exacerbate cell death in the pathophysiology of PD. The neuroinflammatory phenomenon is characterized by the activation of central nervous system cells, such as neurons, microglia and astrocytes, in addition to proinflammatory mediators that are elevated in patients with PD, such as the enzyme cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), tumor necrosis factoralpha (TNF-?), interleukin 1? (IL-1?) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), among others. These factors are present in neuroanatomic structures such as striatum and substantia nigra pars compacta. Chronic treatment with L-DOPA, the precursor of the neurotransmitter dopamine, initially generates a reduction in the manifestation of motor symptoms in the vast majority of patients, but after a certain time of treatment, motor complications begin to appear, such as L-DOPAinduced dyskinesia (LID). The development and manifestation of LID may also accompany an abnormal inflammatory response. Data from our group suggest the enzyme COX-2 as one of the mediators of LID. Studies also point out that drugs that reduce LID are able to modulate COX-2 expression. Our objective, therefore, was to characterize the presence of proinflammatory factors/mechanisms in the injured striatum of mice treated with L-DOPA. For this purpose, the present study will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, we used the hemiparkinsonian mice model (lesioned with 6-hydroxydopamine) treated with LDOPA for different time periods (1, 7, 14 and 21 days) to observe the appearance of inflammatory factors in the striatum, such as the COX-2 enzyme, nuclear factor kappa-B (NF- ?B) and the expression and activity of glial cells, represented by astrocytes and microglia. In the second chapter, we demonstrated the potential of glial cells to produce cytokines and/or glutamate after stimulation with the major neurotransmitters involved with LID, dopamine (or its precursor L-DOPA) and glutamate. Finally, in the third chapter, we demonstrate the therapeutic potential of drugs used in the clinic with anti-inflammatory properties to reduce previously established LID. For this, we used cannabidiol (the active constituent of Cannabis, used for the treatment of epilepsy, among others) and celecoxib (a specific COX-2 activity inhibitor). The present study corroborates the existence of an inflammatory process in the injured striatum of parkinsonian mice, exacerbated by treatment with L-DOPA. The COX-2 enzyme may play a key role in the development of LID. Additionally, this work suggests that drugs clinically used with anti-inflammatory action may become possible therapeutic tools for the reduction of this disorder. In this way, we relate the production of inflammatory factors and the activation of glial cells to the perpetuation of an abnormal striatal postsynaptic activity that causes the \"maladaptative plasticity\" typical of LID.

A doença de Parkinson (DP) é a segunda doença neurodegenerativa que mais atinge a população mundial. O desenvolvimento dos prejuízos motores decorrentes da doença está relacionado a sua fisiopatologia, que promove principalmente a neurodegeneração dos neurônios dopaminérgicos da substância negra pars compacta. Estudos sugerem o envolvimento de vias inflamatórias exacerbando a morte celular na fisiopatologia da DP. O fenômeno neuroinflamatório é caracterizado pela ativação de diversas células do sistema nervoso central, como neurônios, micróglia e astrócitos, além dos principais mediadores pró- inflamatórios, que são a enzima ciclooxigenase-2 (COX-2), o fator de necrose tumoral-alfa (TNF-?), a interleucina 1? (IL-1?) e a interleucina 6 (IL-6), entre outros. Estes fatores estão presentes em estruturas neuroanatômicas como o estriado e substância negra pars compacta de indivíduos com a DP. O tratamento crônico com L-DOPA, o precursor do neurotransmissor dopamina, inicialmente gera uma redução da manifestação dos sintomas motores na maioria dos pacientes. Porém, após certo tempo de tratamento, ocorre o surgimento de complicações motoras, como a discinesia induzida por L-DOPA (LID - LDOPA-induced dyskinesia). O desenvolvimento e a manifestação da LID também podem acompanhar uma resposta inflamatória anormal. Dados do grupo sugerem a enzima COX-2 e as células gliais como mediadores da LID. Estudos apontam que fármacos que reduzem a LID modulam a expressão de COX-2. Nosso objetivo, portanto, foi caracterizar a presença de fatores/mecanismos pró-inflamatórios no estriado lesionado de camundongos tratados com LDOPA. Nossos resultados serão apresentados em três capítulos. No primeiro capítulo, empregamos o modelo de camundongos hemiparkinsonianos (lesionados com 6- hidroxidopamina) e tratamos com L-DOPA por diferentes períodos de tempo (1, 7, 14 e 21 dias) para analisarmos o surgimento de fatores inflamatórios no estriado, como a enzima COX-2, o fator nuclear kappa-B (NF-?B) e a expressão e atividade dos astrócitos e micróglia. No segundo capítulo, demonstramos o potencial destas células gliais em produzir citocinas e/ou glutamato após estímulo com os principais neurotransmissores envolvidos com a LID, a DA (ou seu precursor L-DOPA) e glutamato. No terceiro capítulo, demonstramos o potencial terapêutico de drogas usadas na clínica - com propriedades anti-inflamatórias - de reduzirem a LID previamente estabelecida. Para tal, utilizamos o canabidiol (princípio ativo da Cannabis, usado no tratamento para epilepsia, entre outros) e o celecoxibe (inibidor específico da atividade enzimática da COX-2). Este estudo corrobora a existência de um processo inflamatório no estriado lesionado de camundongos parkinsonianos, exacerbado pelo tratamento com L-DOPA. A enzima COX-2 pode ter um papel fundamental no desenvolvimento da LID. Adicionalmente, este trabalho sugere que drogas utilizadas clinicamente com ação anti-inflamatória podem se tornar possíveis ferramentas terapêuticas para a redução desta desordem. Desta forma, relacionamos a produção de fatores inflamatórios e a ativação de células gliais à perpetuação de uma atividade pós-sináptica estriatal anormal que ocasionam a \"má plasticidade\" típica da LID. / Parkinson\'s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease in world population. The development of motor impairments related to this disease occurs due to its pathophysiology, which mainly promotes the neurodegeneration of the dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Studies suggest the involvement of inflammatory pathways that exacerbate cell death in the pathophysiology of PD. The neuroinflammatory phenomenon is characterized by the activation of central nervous system cells, such as neurons, microglia and astrocytes, in addition to proinflammatory mediators that are elevated in patients with PD, such as the enzyme cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), tumor necrosis factoralpha (TNF-?), interleukin 1? (IL-1?) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), among others. These factors are present in neuroanatomic structures such as striatum and substantia nigra pars compacta. Chronic treatment with L-DOPA, the precursor of the neurotransmitter dopamine, initially generates a reduction in the manifestation of motor symptoms in the vast majority of patients, but after a certain time of treatment, motor complications begin to appear, such as L-DOPAinduced dyskinesia (LID). The development and manifestation of LID may also accompany an abnormal inflammatory response. Data from our group suggest the enzyme COX-2 as one of the mediators of LID. Studies also point out that drugs that reduce LID are able to modulate COX-2 expression. Our objective, therefore, was to characterize the presence of proinflammatory factors/mechanisms in the injured striatum of mice treated with L-DOPA. For this purpose, the present study will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, we used the hemiparkinsonian mice model (lesioned with 6-hydroxydopamine) treated with LDOPA for different time periods (1, 7, 14 and 21 days) to observe the appearance of inflammatory factors in the striatum, such as the COX-2 enzyme, nuclear factor kappa-B (NF- ?B) and the expression and activity of glial cells, represented by astrocytes and microglia. In the second chapter, we demonstrated the potential of glial cells to produce cytokines and/or glutamate after stimulation with the major neurotransmitters involved with LID, dopamine (or its precursor L-DOPA) and glutamate. Finally, in the third chapter, we demonstrate the therapeutic potential of drugs used in the clinic with anti-inflammatory properties to reduce previously established LID. For this, we used cannabidiol (the active constituent of Cannabis, used for the treatment of epilepsy, among others) and celecoxib (a specific COX-2 activity inhibitor). The present study corroborates the existence of an inflammatory process in the injured striatum of parkinsonian mice, exacerbated by treatment with L-DOPA. The COX-2 enzyme may play a key role in the development of LID. Additionally, this work suggests that drugs clinically used with anti-inflammatory action may become possible therapeutic tools for the reduction of this disorder. In this way, we relate the production of inflammatory factors and the activation of glial cells to the perpetuation of an abnormal striatal postsynaptic activity that causes the \"maladaptative plasticity\" typical of LID.

Mes travaux de thèse concernent le rôle du récepteur D1 de la dopamine dans les dyskinésies L-dopa induites, effets secondaires extrêmement handicapants du traitement de la maladie de Parkinson. En condition de dénervation striatale mimant l’environnement de la maladie de Parkinson, le traitement chronique par la L-dopa entraine des altérations majeures du trafic intraneuronal et de la signalisation du récepteur D1 de la dopamine dans les principaux neurones cibles de la dopamine, les neurones épineux de taille moyenne du striatum. Il existe en particulier une hypersensibilisation des récepteurs D1 dans les neurones striataux, avec une abondance accrue à la membrane plasmique et une diminution du niveau d’expression de la protéine GRK6 (Protéine kinase des Récepteurs Couplés aux Protéines G 6), un des acteurs clefs des phénomènes de désensibilisation, en relation directe avec l’apparition des dyskinésies.C’est dans ce contexte que se situe mon travail de thèse qui a eu pour objectif de mettre à profit et/ou de développer différents modèles expérimentaux et outils « in vivo » et « in vitro ». Nous avons associé des techniques d’imagerie cellulaire et tissulaire à des approches comportementales, afin d’explorer certains des événements cellulaires et moléculaires à l’échelle du neurone striatal et des réseaux neuronaux, reliant le niveau d’expression du récepteur D1, sa compartimentation cellulaire, son trafic intraneuronal et les dyskinésies ou des conditions pharmacologiques équivalentes.Nous avons confirmé dans le modèle du rat lésé unilatéralement à la 6-OHDA, traité par la L-dopa et développant des mouvements anormaux analogues aux dyskinésies chez l’homme, que le récepteur D1 est anormalement abondant à la membrane plasmique des neurones du striatum, alors qu’il devrait être internalisé après stimulation par son ligand naturel, la dopamine. Nous avons mis en évidence que les mécanismes d’internalisation après stimulation par un agoniste restent néanmoins fonctionnels. Après administration de l’agoniste D1, chez les animaux dyskinétiques, l’abondance des récepteurs D1 augmente dans les compartiments notamment impliqués dans les mécanismes d’internalisation et de transport (vésicules) et de dégradation (corps multivésiculaires). Nous avons apporté une explication possible à cette abondance anormale et à ce défaut d’internalisation, en montrant qu’ils pourraient être dus à une hétérodimérisation entre les récepteurs D1 et D3. La co-activation des récepteurs D1 et D3 par la L-dopa favoriserait l’ancrage du récepteur D1 à la membrane plasmique des neurones striataux.Dans ce cadre, l’abord de l’étude de l’implication du protéasome dans la régulation de l’expression du récepteur D1 de la dopamine nous a semblé particulièrement important, sur la base des premières études soulignant l’implication de ce système catalytique dans le contrôle de l’activité et du métabolisme des récepteurs aux neurotransmetteurs. Nous avons révélé pour la première fois des liens entre l’activité catalytique du protéasome et la dynamique intraneuronale du récepteur D1 et plus particulièrement nous avons montré que son activité chymotrypsine-like est réduite de façon spécifique dans le striatum d’animaux dyskinétiques, comme une conséquence directe d’une déplétion en dopamine associée à une hyperstimulation dopaminergique.Nous avons testé en situation expérimentale une stratégie « thérapeutique » nouvelle en restaurant le mécanisme de désensibilisation homologue du récepteur D1 de la dopamine, par correction du déficit de la kinase GRK6 par transfert du gène correspondant via l’injection intrastriatale d’un vecteur lentiviral. Nous avons montré que cette approche permet de réduire considérablement la sévérité des dyskinésies dans les modèles rat et primate non-humain, analogues des dyskinésies chez l’homme et qu’elle restaure les effets thérapeutiques de la L-dopa. Ces effets sont la conséquence de la restauration des mécanismes de désensibilisation homologue : la surexpression de GRK6 entraîne l’internalisation spécifique des récepteurs D1. L’ensemble de nos résultats s’inscrit dans une démarche de recherche translationnelle menée depuis plusieurs années au laboratoire allant de la cellule au patient, avec pour but de transposer la compréhension des données expérimentales concernant les anomalies de l’expression du récepteur D1 de la dopamine en stratégies thérapeutiques dans les dyskinésies L-dopa induites. Nos investigations montrent qu’il est possible d’agir sur l’expression du récepteur D1 à la membrane plasmique des neurones striataux de manière indirecte, en manipulant trois co-activateurs de son métabolisme, pour espérer réduire « in fine » la sévérité des dyskinésies. / In my thesis work, I studied the role of dopamine D1 receptor in L-dopa induced dyskinesia, a debilitating complication of Parkinson's disease’s treatment. In condition of striatal denervation, that mimics the Parkinson's disease environment, chronic treatment with L-dopa leads to major alterations of intraneuronal trafficking and dopamine D1 receptor signaling in the major target of dopamine neurons, the striatal medium spiny neurons. In particularly, there is a D1 receptor hypersensitivity in striatal neurons, with an increased abundance of D1 receptor at the plasma membrane and a decreased level of GRK6 protein expression, a key actor in desensitization mechanism, directly related with the apparition of dyskinesia.In this context, I used different in vitro and in vivo experimental models and tools. I have associated cell and tissue imaging techniques and behavioural approaches in order to explore cellular and molecular events in striatal neuron and neuronal networks, linking the D1 receptor expression level, its cellular compartmentalization, its intraneuronal trafficking and the dyskinesia behaviour or equivalent pharmacological conditions.We confirmed in the rat analog of L-dopa-induced dyskinesia, i.e., the L-dopa-induced abnormal involuntary movements in unilaterally 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-lesioned animals, that D1 receptor is abnormally abundant in the plasma membrane of neurons in the striatum, whereas it should be internalized after stimulation by its natural ligand, the dopamine. We showed that nevertheless the internalization mechanisms after agonist stimulation remains functional. After D1 agonist administration in dyskinetic animals, D1 receptor abundance increases in the cytoplasmic compartments involved in the internalization and transport (vesicles) and degradation (multivesicular bodies) mechanisms. Based on D3 receptor antagonist experiment, we propose that this abnormal abundance and this lack of internalization could be due to heterodimerization between the D1 and D3 receptors. D1 and D3 receptors co-activation by L-dopa might anchor D1 receptor at the plasma membrane of striatal neurons.In this context, analysis of proteasome involvement in the regulation of dopamine D1 receptor expression seemed particularly important, on the basis of the first studies underlying proteasome involvement in the activity and metabolism of neurotransmitter receptors. We demonstrated for the first time links between the proteasomal catalytic activity and D1 receptor intraneuronal dynamics and more particularly we showed that the proteasome chymotrypsin-like activity is reduced specifically in the striatum of dyskinetic animals, as a direct consequence of dopamine depletion associated with dopaminergic hyperstimulation.We tested in experimental condition, a new "therapeutic"strategy in order to restore the dopamine D1 receptor homologous desensitization mechanism, correcting the GRK6 kinase deficit by gene transfer through the intrastriatal injection of a lentiviral vector. We showed that this approach reduces significantly the dyskinesia severity in rat and non-human primate models and restores the L-dopa therapeutic effects. These effects are a consequence of the homologous desensitization mechanisms restoration : indeed GRK6 overexpression provokes specific D1 receptor internalization.Our results are part of a translational research conducted over several years in the laboratory from cell to patient, in order to translate our increased understanding of D1 receptor function abnormalities into therapeutic strategies for L-dopa induced dyskinesia. Our investigations show that it is possible to act on D1 receptor expression at the plasma membrane of striatal neurons via various routes, all resulting into diminished dyskinesia severity.

Le traitement de référence de la maladie de Parkinson (MP) reste l’utilisation du précurseurdirect de la dopamine: la L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-Dopa). Le traitement chroniquedes patients parkinsoniens à la L-Dopa induit, en revanche, systématiquement desmouvements involontaires anormaux que l’on qualifie de dyskinésies induites par la L-Dopa(DIL). L’étude de l’expression des dyskinésies s’est essentiellement focalisée sur lesdysfonctions neuronales engendrées dans les régions motrices des ganglions de la base et apermis de révéler une surexpression significative de gènes de réponse précoce (GRP) tels que: ΔFosB, ARC, Zif268 et FRA2 dans le striatum de rats dyskinétiques traités chroniquement à la L–Dopa. En revanche, plusieurs autres régions dopaminoceptives, probablement affectées par la dopamine exogène nouvellement synthétisée, ont été négligées alors qu’elles pourraient jouer un rôle clé dans l’expression des dyskinésies. Par conséquent, nous avons quantifié l’expression de ΔFosB, ARC, FRA2 et Zif268 dans l’ensemble du cerveau de rats dyskinétiques que nous avons comparée à des rats non-dyskinétiques. Cette approche nous a permis d’identifier 9 structures, localisées en dehors des ganglions de la base, présentant une surexpression d’au moins 3 des GRPs cités ci-dessus. Parmi ces structures, le domaine dorsolatéral du « bed nucleus of the stria terminalis » (dlBST) et l’habenula latérale (LHb) montrent une corrélation significative entre l’expression de ΔFosB et la sévérité des dyskinésies. Nous avons donc fait l’hypothèse que ces 2 structures pouvaient être impliquées dans l’expression des dyskinésies. Par conséquent, pour évaluer le rôle potentiel du dlBST et de la LHb dans les dyskinésies, nous avons inhibé l’activité électrique des neurones exprimant FosB/ΔFosB en utilisant la méthode d’inactivation sélective du Daun02/ß-galactosidase que nous avons précédemment validée dans une structure bien connue pour être impliquée dans les dyskinésies: le striatum. Nous avons démontré que l’inhibition de ces neurones, à la fois dans le dlBST et la LHb, diminuait la sévérité des dyskinésies sans affecter l’effet bénéfique de la L-Dopa chez les rats dyskinétiques. Nous avons ensuite pu confirmer l’implication du dlBST grâce au model de référence des dyskinésies: le macaque dyskinétique lésé au MPTP. L’ensemble de ces résultats nous a ainsi permis de montrer, pour la première fois, l’implication fonctionnelle de 2 structures externes aux ganglions de la base dans l’expression des dyskinésies, offrant de nouvelles perspectives thérapeutiques. / The gold standard treatment for Parkinson’s disease (PD) remains the dopamine precursor L- 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-Dopa). Long-term L-Dopa treatment systematically leads to abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs) called L-Dopa-induced dyskinesia (LID). These manifestations first led to investigate the neuronal dysfunctions in the motor regions of thebasal ganglia and unravelled an overexpression of ΔFosB, ARC, Zif268 and FRA2 immediate-early genes (IEG) in the dopamine-depleted striatum of dyskinetic rats. However, other several dopaminoceptive structures, likely affected by the exogenously produced dopamine, have been neglected although they might play a key role in mediating LID. Hence, we assessed the expression of ΔFosB, ARC, FRA2 and Zif268 IEGs in the whole brain of dyskinetic rats compared to non-dyskinetic ones. Such approach shed light notably upon 9 structures located outside of the basal ganglia displaying an IEG overexpression. Among them, the dorsolateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (dlBST) and the lateralhabenula (LHb) displayed a significant correlation between ΔFosB expression and LID severity. We therefore postulated that these structures might play a role in LID manifestation. Therefore, to assess dlBST and LHb causal roles upon LID severity, we inhibited the electrical activity of FosB/ΔFosB-expressing neurons using the selective Daun02/β- galactosidase inactivation method that we previously validated in a well known structure involve in LID: the striatum. Interestingly, the inactivation of dlBST and LHb ΔfosBexpressing neurons alleviated LID severity and increased the beneficial effect of L-Dopa in dyskinetic rats. Remarkably, BST involvement in LID was confirmed in the gold standard model of LID, the dyskinetic MPTP-lesioned macaque. Altogether, our results highlight for the first time the functional involvement of 2 structures.