Thesis (M.Sc. (Environmental Science)) - Rhodes University, 2009

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Traditional top-down decision-making models have become unpopular since public institutions have been demanding more democracy at local level. New approaches and techniques have focused on how the majority of people can be involved in a bottom-up approach to development and decision making. Techniques, such as Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRAs), have identified people's concerns regarding the use of natural resources centred on land issues. Land is essentially a subject of public concern. Land as a spatial phenomenon controlled politically and used by all for survival and other purposes needs to be assessed in an integrated and time-spatial way for better planning and decision making. Geographical Information Systems (GISs) have often been used by statutory "experts" in evaluating, analysing and mapping of land and land-related features. GISs have a lot of potential in being applied as decision-making tools. If this is the case, how can public perceptions and politics be presented and mapped in a GIS to improve and democratise decision making even further? The study has investigated new methods of representing people's perspectives at grassroots level in a non-traditional way. A sub-region of the Lowveld, situated in the Mpumalanga province, has been selected because of the various kinds of land owners in the region. The Kruger National Park lies to the east of the study area, from where some black communities claim to have been removed. To the west of that is one of the districts of the former homeland KaNgwane, namely Nsikazi, and west of that two areas of intensive large-scale commercial fruit and vegetable production in the Nelspruit-White River and Kiepersol-Hazyview areas. Towards the escarpment north-west of these lie large commercial exotic forest plantations, owned mainly by Safcol and MandL Given the high demand and need for land from the overpopulated Nsikazi district, the process of land reform is a matter of great concern. White male commercial farmers in both regions where commercial farming is active were interviewed about their knowledge and perceptions of land reform. Various themes were presented to the farmers to comment on, namely the history of forced removals, land use, land potential, hydrology and where land reform should take place. Interviews were taped in Afrikaans, transcribed and translated to English. "Mental maps" were drawn on tracing paper overlaid on topographical maps of the Land Surveyor General, Mowbray. These were digitised and managed in Arclnfo, and displayed and analysed in ArcView, from where output maps were produced. The results of this technique proved to be very useful and can certainly broaden the use of GISs in decision making and public participation. However, GISs alone cannot be seen as the solution to better development and better decision-making. Public participation is of the utmost value in facilitating and initiating these processes. Land use planning needs to be the responsibility and concern of all land users and owners at a local level, where GISs can be applied as a tool to provide easier and more effective analysis and results for the implementation of initiatives. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Tradisionele bo-na-onder besluitnemingsmodelle het in die laaste paar dekades baie ongewild geraak met die totstandkoming van instellings wat die publiek se mening hoog ag en demokrasie op grondvlak probeer bevorder. Nuwe benaderings en tegnieke poog nou om die publiek se mening in 'n onder-na-bo benadering tot ontwikkeling en besluitneming te integreer. Grondhervorming is basies die erns van die publiek, meer so as die staat. Grond is 'n ruimtelike verskynsel wat polities beheer word maar deur die meerderheid gebruik word vir oorlewing asook ander doeleindes. Dit behoort op 'n tyd-ruimtelike basis op 'n geïntegreerde wyse vir beter beplanning en besluitneming ondersoek te word. Geografiese Inligtingstelsels (GISs) word hoofsaaklik deur statutêre "kenners" gebruik in die evaluering, analise en kartering van grond en verbandhoudende verskynsels. Dit beskik verder oor die potensiaal om in besluitnemingsprosesse gebruik te word. Die vraag ontstaan egter hoe die publiek se menings en politieke strukture met 'n GIS verteenwoordig en gekarteer kan word ter verbetering van besluitneming op 'n meer demokratiese wyse. Die studie het nuwe metodes ondersoek waarvolgens mense op grondvlak se persepsies op nie-tradisionele maniere verteenwoordig en ondersoek kan word. 'n Sub-streek van die Laeveld wat geleë is in die Mpumalanga provinsie, is geselekteer vanweë die verskeidenheid grondeienaars wat daar voorkom. Die Kruger Nasionale Park is geleë in die oostelike deel van die studiegebied vanwaar sekere swart gemeenskappe gedurende die Apartheidsregime verskuif is. Direk wes hiervan lê die voormalige tuisland KaNgwane se Nsikazi distrik en wes daarvan twee areas, naamlik Nelspruit-Witrivier en Kiepersol-Hazyview, waar die kommersiële boerdery van vrugte en groente op groot skaal beoefen word. In die noordwestelike gedeeltes van die studiegebied kom grootskaalse uitheemse bosbouplantasies voor wat aan Safcol en Mondi behoort. Met die stygende aanvraag na grond vir residensiële- en landbougebruik in die streek, veral vanuit die Nsikazi distrik, is grondhervorming en die toepassing daarvan, 'n probleem, indien nie 'n bedreiging, vir die meeste grondeienaars. Onderhoude is met blanke manlike kommersiële boere, in albei die kommersiële streke gevoer om hul menings en kennis van grondhervorming te ondersoek. Verskeie temas is as besprekingspunte gestel, naamlik die geskiedenis van gedwonge verskuiwings, grondgebruik, grondpotensiaal, water hulpbronne en waar hul meen grondhervorming sou moes plaasvind. Onderhoude was in Afrikaans opgeneem, getranskribeer en in Engels vertaal. "Kognitiewe kaarte" was op deursigtige papier geteken wat oor 'n reeks topografiese kaarte van die gebied gelê is. Die resultate is versyfer en in Arelnfo gemanipuleer en daarna in ArcView ontleed en vir verslaglewering gekarteer. Die resultate van die tegniek beloof om vir beide besluitnemers en die publiek as deelnemers in die proses baie bruikbaar te wees. Dit verbreed ook die gebruik en toepassing van GISs en die sisteem se vermoëns. GISs kan egter nie alleenlik aangewend word om ontwikkeling en besluitneming vir die publiek beter of meer aanvaarbaar te maak nie. Alle mense se deelname is van die uiterste belang en waarde in die inisiëring, fasilitering en implementering van strategieë en projekte. Grondgebruiksbeplanning moet die verantwoordelikheid van almal word wat grond op plaaslike vlak gebruik of besit, nie net van die wat deur 'n probleem of program, soos grondhervorming, geraak word nie. 'n GIS kan aangewend word om die prosesse van ontwikkeling en besluitneming te vergemaklik deur analises vinniger en op 'n meer effektiewe manier te ondersoek vir beter en meer demokratiese besluitneming.

Orientador: Maristela Simões do Carmo / Banca: Elias José Simon / Banca: José Maria Ferreira J.da Silveira / Banca: Liciana Vaz de Arruda Silveira / Banca: Paulo André de Oliveira / Resumo: A reforma agrária permanece um tema atual em função das tensões provocadas pela concentração de terras e pela falta de alternativas de ocupação para parte da população que ainda vive no meio rural. Ao transferir terras improdutivas para famílias com potencial produtivo, a reforma agrária pode aumentar a eficiência econômica. O modelo de reforma agrária brasileiro, baseia-se no assentamento de famílias sem terra, em terras devolutas ou desapropriadas de imóveis improdutivos. Os programas de acesso à terra via mercado são instrumentos complementares, disponibilizam crédito para grupos de produtores comprarem a propriedade no mercado fundiário. Portanto, espera-se que estes mecanismos produzam resultados distintos sobre a alocação de recursos e eficiência produtiva. O objetivo deste trabalho foi medir a eficiência de produção relativa entre os assentados segundo o mecanismo de acesso à terra. A análise de eficiência produtiva foi realizada utilizando-se um modelo de fronteira estocástica de produção sob a forma funcional Cobb-Douglas. Os dados são representativos para o conjunto dos estados: Bahia, Ceará, Maranhão, Pernambuco e Norte de Minas Gerais. A eficiência média estimada foi de 0,3163, sendo 0,3678 para os assentados por desapropriação e 0,3537 para os beneficiários com acesso à terra via mercado. A produção apresentou rendimentos decrescentes em função dos fatores de produção, com maior elasticidade parcial para terra. Os resultados não indicaram evidências de que o acesso à terra via mercado contribuísse para a eficiência dos assentados. Contribuíram positivamente para eficiência, as fontes: trabalho externo, trabalho coletivo, localização em municípios com solos de qualidade superior, localização nos estados do Maranhão e Ceará, idade do chefe da família, o cultivo irrigado e emprego de tração mecânica nas atividades produtivas / Abstract: Land reform remains a current theme considering the tensions provoked by the concentration of lands and the lack of alternatives of employment for the population who live in rural areas. Land reform can improve the economic efficiency level when the unproductive lands are transferred to families with productive potential. The model of Brazilian land reform is based on settlements of families without land, in unoccupied public lands, or expropriation of unproductive estates. The market assisted land reform programs are considered complementary instruments of land reform. They are used to provide credit for land purchase by groups of landless farmers directly from the land market. The aim of this research was to measure the profit efficiency, considering two different mechanisms of land access. The analysis of profit efficiency was performed using the Stochastic Frontier Analysis. The frontier of production was estimated based on Cobb-Douglas production function. The data set represents the states: Bahia, Ceará, Maranhão, Pernambuco and the north region of Minas Gerais. The overall efficiency estimates were 0.3163. The efficiency estimates were 0.3678 for the farmers assigned by expropriation, and 0.3678 for the farmers with market land access. The production showed decreasing gains with the major partial elasticity for land. The positive efficiency effect sources are: farm labor, collective labor, location in superior soil class county areas, location in Maranhão and Ceará states, age of head of household, crops with irrigation or flood, and use of machinery. The negative efficiency effect sources are: outer-incomes and family consumption of its own production. There was no evidence that the farmers assigned by market assisted land reform developed more efficiency. On the other hand, it is not correct to conclude that farmers assigned by land expropriation developed better profit efficiency level / Doutor

In this study, a comparison was made between two different land reform models in the Sarah Baartman District of the Eastern Cape to, firstly; evaluate and identify factors that influence long-term sustainability and prosperity of farms owned and run by beneficiaries, and farms jointly owned by beneficiaries and former farmer / mentor in a share equity scheme, referred to as Farmworkers Equity Share Schemes (FWES), and secondly; to identify forms of government support in each of the two models. Mixed methods were used to collect data for the study. It involved the administration of structured interviews to beneficiaries, and semi-structured interviews with the mentor and government officials. The study found that the equity share scheme improved the livelihood of the beneficiaries in terms of getting annual dividends and acquiring new properties, empowered beneficiaries in decision-making in terms of having a say in financial expenditure on farm operations and the structuring of dividend pay-outs, and the project showed great potential of long-term sustainability and prosperity. Conversely, the beneficiary-owned and run project did not improve the lives of beneficiaries, was prone to infighting and fraught with organisational and management problems with no prospects of long-term sustainability and economic viability.

A pesquisa apresenta o fenômeno da rotatividade, composta por evasão, trocas e outras saídas, em 193 assentamentos do Rio Grande do Sul, com ênfase na evasão de lotes. Esta é entendida como a saída do Programa de Reforma Agrária e foi correlacionada com 16 variáveis: a) crédito instalaçãomodalidade apoio; b) crédito instalação-modalidade materiais de construção; c)PRONAF A; d)percentual de lotes sem água; e) sem luz; f) sem casa; g) qualidade das estradas internas; h) estradas externas; i) qualidade dos solos; j) tipo de prestadora da assistência técnica, l) executor do assentamento, m) ano de implantação; n) tipo de público; o) a região de implantação; p) religião do evadido; e q) seu estado civil. Estas variáveis e a evasão foram obtidas com dados secundários no INCRA e no GRAC, o órgão de terras estadual. As duas últimas variáveis foram testadas somente em dois estudos de casos, realizados na forma de etnografias. Isto foi necessário para dar conta da hipótese central, de que a evasão é facilitada em situações de baixa coesão social, haja vista que quase todas as variáveis se referem à dimensão material da questão, notadamente problemas de crédito e infra-estrutura. Para a compreensão dos processos que levam à coesão social nos assentamentos, lançamos mão do aporte teórico da sociologia da crítica, com contribuições pontuais de outros autores, tais como Bourdieu, Elias, Wolf e Martins, entre outros, além da antropologia, principalmente através da noção de reciprocidade, neste caso, com o aporte essencial de Sabourin e Caillé. Os resultados obtidos revelam uma estimativa da média de evasão nos assentamentos de 22 %, porém com diferenças regionais grandes, onde, na metade norte do Estado, encontramos algo em torno de 10%, e na metade sul, quase 30%. Não obtivemos correlação de nenhuma variável da chamada dimensão material com a evasão, ao passo que verificamos a centralidade das relações de reciprocidade, em especial o parentesco, na forma da família extensa e do compadrio e das relações com os vizinhos, “gaúchos” e fazendeiros, na construção da coesão social e no estancamento da evasão. Esta se dá concomitante à contenção de conflitos, onde a Assembléia de Deus, Igreja Pentecostal, assume posição preponderante nos casos estudados. Os evangélicos, assim como os casados, tendem a uma menor rotatividade e evasão, pois caminham para um maior fortalecimento de laços sociais, quando comparados com os solteiros e os católicos. Por último, discutimos o papel dos mediadores, principalmente a assistência técnica, os técnicos dos órgãos de terra e as lideranças do MST, num ambiente de disputas e acordos entre projetos corporativos, por nós denominados: projeto tradicional-camponês, projeto socialista-coletivista e projeto empresarial, além das estratégias não corporáveis, que podem levar ao rentismo e à evasão propriamente. / The research presents the rotating phenomenon, composed by escape, exchange and others exits, in 193 settlements of Rio Grande do Sul, with emphasis in parcels escape. It is understood like the land reform escape and was correlated with 16 factors: a) install credit- support modality, b) install credit – construction materials modality, c) PRONAF A, d) percentage of parcels without water, e) without light parcels, f) percentage of parcels without house, g) internal road quality, h) external road quality, i) soil quality, j) technical assistance kind l) settlement executor, m) implant year, n) public type o) implant region, p) escaped religion, q) escaped civil state. These factors and the escape were got in secondary dates of INCRA and GRAC, the state land institution. The two last factors were tested only in ethnographic cases. It was necessary to respond the central hypothesis, where the escape is facilitated in low social cohesion situations, because almost all factors refers to the question material dimension, in particular, infra-structure and credit problems. To social cohesion process understanding, we made use the criticism sociology theoretic support, with other authors punctuals contributions, like Bourdieu, Elias, Wolf and Martins, among others; beyond the anthropology, mainly throw the reciprocity notion, in this case with the Sabourin and Caillé essential support. The results reveal a 22% settlement escape average estimative, however, with great regional differences, where, in state half northern, we found nearly 10%, and in half southern, almost 30%. We did not get correlation of no material dimension factors with escape, but we verified the reciprocity relations centrality, in special, the kinship, in extend family and “compadrio” form, and the neighbor relationship, “gaúchos” and farmers, in the social cohesion construction and in the escape stopping. It occur concomitant the contention conflict, where God Assembly, a Pentecostal Church, assumes a preponderant position in the studied cases. The evangelicals, just like the married, tend to low escape and rotation, because they lead to higher social laces strengthening, in comparison with catholic and singles. Finally, we discussed the mediator paper, mainly the technical assistance, land institutions technical and MST leaders, in a corporation projects struggle ambient, we denominated: peasant–traditional project, collectivist-socialist project and enterprise project, beyond the no corporeal strategies, that can lead to rental and escape.

O presente trabalho tem o propósito de avaliar a questão agrária no Brasil, a partir da execução do Plano Nacional da Reforma Agrária através da política de implantação de assentamentos rurais. Um recorte histórico foi estabelecido a partir do Brasil Colônia, resgatando o modelo colonialista agroexportador, como fonte primária de valorização da grande propriedade em detrimento da pequena produção. Os momentos oportunos de realização da reforma agrária foram identificados, ao tempo em que se ressaltaram as conseqüências da adoção de modelos de desenvolvimento rural que desvalorizaram a agricultura familiar. A recente política de assentamentos rurais é avaliada a partir de casos estudados de diversos autores. De forma mais aprofundada, se estudou o projeto de assentamento Japão em Roraima. A técnica utilizada foi o estudo de caso, na medida em que explora situações reais, a partir do método ex post, ou seja, aquele em que o fenômeno acontecera sem a interferência temporal e espacial do pesquisador, em cujo objetivo tratou-se de estabelecer a correlação entre variáveis. As análises foram centradas nas condições de vida das famílias, na viabilidade microeconômica do lote e nos impactos ambientais e na economia local provocada pelos assentamentos. As conclusões são pela viabilidade da política de implantação de assentamentos, ressalvando as fragilidades inerentes à execução governamental, cuja eficiência deve ser mensurada de forma dinâmica, plural, considerando as variáveis sociais, em detrimento de análises fragmentadas de cunho econômico exclusivamente. / This study aims to evaluate the land question in Brazil, from the implementation of National Plan of Agrarian Reform through the political deployment of rural settlements. A historical overview was established from the colony of Brazil, recovering the agro-export model colonialist as a primary source of recovery of the large property at the expense of small production. Opportune moments of land reform were identified at the time that emphasized the consequences of adopting rural development models that dismissed the family farm. The recent rural settlement policy is evaluated from the cases studied by several authors. More thoroughly studied its settlement project in Japan Roraima. The technique used was a case study in that it explores real life situations, from the ex post method, if one in which the phenomenon happened without the interference of temporal and spatial researcher, whose goal in this was to establish correlation between variables. Analyses were focused on the living conditions of families in the batch and microeconomic feasibility and environmental impacts on the local economy caused by the settlements. The conclusions are the viability of the deployment of settlements, pointing out the weaknesses inherent in the implementation of government, whose efficiency should be measured in a dynamic, plural, considering the social variables, rather than piecemeal analysis of exclusively economic nature.

Este trabalho tem o objetivo de investigar as realizações e representações referentes à organização e constituição do lugar da morada de famílias rurais em contexto de assentamento da Reforma Agrária. O lugar da morada é apreendido como locus em que se desenvolve a dinâmica familiar, incluindo a casa e o entorno próximo, com o pátio, o jardim, a horta e o "arvoredo". São tomados por referência estudos realizados anteriormente, que destacaram a lógica e a simbólica do sítio camponês, evidenciando a dimensão cultural na constituição do lugar. O trabalho mostra que os colonos assentados passam pelo processo de constituição do lugar da morada no novo espaço, trajetória que é permeada pela reconstrução da própria vida em um novo contexto. A constituição do lugar da morada desenha-se a partir do estabelecimento de laços afetivos com a nova terra, em que o espaço, percebido como estranho, torna-se, no curso da vida, o lugar de viver. As construções e seu entorno revelam um sistema de valores que reflete a organização da existência desses agricultores, por meio da atualização dos modos de morar, entendidos como textos da cultura, que falam sobre a família e a moral camponesa. Dessa forma, a morada é, no meio rural, compreendida como o lugar de viver das famílias. Há uma dicotomia, bem como uma complementaridade, entre o dentro e o fora, o ambiente construído e ambiente não construído, ambos fruto do planejamento permeado e inserido em um sistema simbólico camponês. A morada é percebida como o lugar de domínio feminino, sendo as diferenças de gênero também reveladas nas percepções e usos dos ambientes que a compõem. É, então, a partir do entendimento de que, nas diferentes sociedades, o espaço não é apenas habitado, mas também pensado, que se desenha este estudo, por meio de pesquisa qualitativa, de cunho etnográfico, realizada em 2008 no assentamento São Virgílio, situado no município de Herval, Rio Grande do Sul. / This searching study has the aim to investigate how people think their place's living constitutions (and organization), what it means for them, how they organize the constitutions of the place where the peasants live in the settlement in the Land Reform. The place of families living is grasped like a place where the peasants develop familiar dynamic, include the house and the surround, with backyard, garden, vegetable garden and the trees. It was taken as reference studies carried out, before that pointed out the logic and the symbolic of the field peasants. Enphasising the cultural dimension in the place's constitution. The searching study shows how the peasants settled pass through place's living constitution in the new space, through of the rebuild their own life in the new context. The constitution of the place's living happen from the statesment affective links with the new land, where the space concepted as strange, become, on the life's way the place's living. The buildings and their surroundings reveal a value's system that reflete the organization of the peasant's existence, through the new ways to live, understood as cultural text, that speak about the family and moral peasantry. So, the living, in the country field, is grasped like the family's place to live. There is a dichotomy, as well as a complement, between inside and outside, the built place and no built place both consequently from fulfillment included in peasant's symbolic system. The living is conceived as a female dominium place, the gender's differences are also revealed in the perceptions and uses of the component's places. From the concept that in the differents sociaties, the places are not only inhabitated, but also thought, that guide this study, through qualitative searching, of ethnographic aspect, carried out in 2008 in the São Virgílio settlement, located in the municipality of Herval, Rio Grande do Sul.

This diploma thesis is focused on years 1900-1938 in Czech history, which is the period of time from the end of 19th century to the end of so called "The First Republic". The thesis follows historical development of the aristocratic estate of Přečín at the foothills of the Šumava mountains as well as on its ground and daily life of local people of that time. The author is focused on interconnection of country people´s lives and this estate as a farm building. Besides, he aims to put history of this location into larger context of history of Czech lands. In his research he used records from The State Regional Archieve Třeboň as a main and rich fount of knowledge of the estate´s history. Records in The State District Archieves in Strakonice and Prachatice were main recources for studying people´s lives and the author used narrative materials, too, especially chronicles. He also worked with a sound recording of a report of a lady who had lived at that time. In every chapter, there are collected findings from archieve sources confronted with professional literature and regional specific literature. The author pays attention to special characteristics of the examined region, ways and opportunities of living, as well as to war events in 1914-1918 and their consequences, that affected daily lives of people. The research leads also to the process of the first land reform, that should have changed Czech countryside. The author doesn´t forget to mention the family of the estate´s owners - the aristocratic family of the Schwarzenbergs.

The thesis offers an original sociological understanding of intermediary Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in the modern world. This is pursued through a study of NGOs and land reform in contemporary Zimbabwe. The prevailing literature on NGOs is marked by a sociological behaviourism that analyses NGOs in terms of external relations and the object-subject dualism. This behaviourism has both ‘structuralist’ and ‘empiricist’ trends that lead to instrumentalist and functionalist forms of argumentation. The thesis details an alternative conceptual corpus that draws upon the epistemological and theoretical insights of Marx and Weber. The epistemological reasoning of Marx involves processes of deconstruction and reconstruction. This entails conceptualizing NGOs as social forms that embody contradictory relations and, for analytical purposes, the thesis privileges the contradiction between ‘the global’ and ‘the local’. In this regard, it speaks about processes of ‘glocalization’ and ‘glocal modernities’ in which NGOs become immersed. The social field of NGOs is marked by ambiguities and tensions, and NGOs seek to ‘negotiate’ and manoeuvre their way through this field by a variety of organizational practices. Understanding these practices necessitates studying NGOs ‘from within’ and drawing specifically on Weber’s notion of ‘meaning’. These practices often entail activities that stabilize and simplify the world and work of NGOs, and this involves NGOs in prioritizing their own organizational sustainability. In handling the tension between ‘the global’ and ‘the local’, NGOs also tend to privilege global trajectories over local initiatives. The thesis illustrates these points in relation to the work of intermediary NGOs in Zimbabwe over the past ten years. Since the year 2000, a radical restructuring of agrarian relations has occurred, and this has been based upon the massive redistribution of land. In this respect, local empowering initiatives have dramatically asserted themselves against globalizing trajectories. These changes have posed serious challenges to ‘land’ NGOs, that is, NGOs involved in land reform either as advocates for reform or as rural development NGOs. The thesis shows how a range of diverse ‘land’ NGOs has ‘handled’ the heightened contradictions in their social field in ways that maintain their organizational coherence and integrity.

This policy brief will highlight the importance of municipal commonage in enhancing livelihoods of poor urban families. This will be followed by an overview of the role of municipal commonage in the land reform programme. Current challenges in securing benefits from municipal commonages are then outlined. Policy considerations to optimise benefits from commonages conclude the policy brief.