This study aims at providing results for the analysis of the stratigraphy underlying contaminated sediments in Ångermanälven. The contaminated sediments, containing heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants, are derived from wastewater discharged into Ångermanälven from nearby paper and pulp industries. These sediments consist of cellulose fibres deposited as fibrebanks, or as fibre-rich sediments in the case where fibres are mixed with natural sediments. The importance of the underlying geology is enhanced since the contaminated sediments are deposited in an area where submarine landslides and slope movements occur frequently. In this study two sediment cores from a fibrebank in Ångermanälven are analysed. This is done in order to assess the risk of contaminants being dispersed in the ecosystem as a result of mass movements. Stratigraphic correlation with results from previous sediment core analysis in the middle of the estuary (International Ocean Discovery Program expedition #347) is achieved through magnetic susceptibility and density measurements of the sediment. Results show that silt layers and clay units situated throughout the estuary are potentially weak and geotechnical investigations are necessary to assess the risk of slope movements over these units. With further analysis of fibrebanks and the use of a vibro-corer, the contact between the fibrebanks and underlying sediment could be captured and further correlation establishing the stratigraphy of the estuary achieved. / Denna studie syftar till att tillhandahålla resultat och tolkningar för analys av den underliggande stratigrafin i Ångermanälven, som överlagrats av förorenade antropogena sediment. De förorenade sedimenten, vilka innehåller tungmetaller samt organiska föroreningar, härrör från avfallsvatten som släppts ut i älven från pappers- och massaindustrin. Sedimenten består av cellulosafibrer och har deponerats som fiberbankar eller fiberrika sediment, varav det sistnämnda består av cellulosa uppblandat med naturliga sediment. Eftersom fiberbankarna och de fiberrika sedimenten är avsatta i ett område där jordskred är vanligt förekommande, är den underliggande geologin som de miljöfarliga sedimenten är avsatta på av avsevärd betydelse. I studien ingår analys av två sedimentborrkärnor från en fiberbank i Ångermanälven. Syftet är att ta fram underlag för att möjliggöra riskbedömning kring spridning av föroreningarna som följd av potentiella jordskred, där de förorenade sedimenten är inblandade. Stratigrafisk korrelation med resultat från tidigare studier i den djupare delen av älven (International Ocean Discovery Program expedition #347) har uppnåtts genom jämförelse av två sedimentegenskaper: sedimentens respons av magnetisk susceptibilitet och densitet. Resultaten visar att silt- och lerlager som återfinns genom hela älven är potentiellt svaga. Vidare är geotekniska undersökningar nödvändiga för att bedöma risken för skred över dessa lager. Analys av fler fiberbankar och användning av ”vibro-corer” istället för kolvbaserad borrmetod, skulle möjliggöra analys av kontakten mellan fiberavsättningarna och den underliggande geologin, samt ytterligare tydliggöra stratigrafin i Ångermanälven.

The rigid sliding-block analysis introduced by Newmark in 1965 has become a popular method for assessing the stability of slopes during earthquakes. Estimates of sliding displacement calculated using this methodology serve as an index of seismic performance and are used for mapping seismic landslide hazard potential. The original approach of rigorously integrating ground acceleration time-histories to compute estimates of sliding displacement has been replaced by the use of simple, empirical models that predict displacement as a function of a slope's yield acceleration and one or more measures of ground shaking. To be useful the results of these models must be compared with observations of landslides from previous earthquakes. Seven different empirical models were evaluated by comparing predicted displacements with an inventory of observed landslides from the 1994 Northridge, California earthquake. Using a comprehensive set of ground motion data and shear strength properties from the Northridge earthquake, sliding displacements were calculated within a geographic information system (GIS) and the accuracy of each model was computed. The influence of factors such as landslide size, geologic unit, slope angle, and material strength on the prediction of landslides was also evaluated. The results were used to show that the accuracy of the predictive models depends less on the model used and more on the uncertainty in the model parameters, specifically the assigned shear strength values. Because current approaches do not take into account the spatial variability of strength within individual geologic units, the accuracy of the predictive models is controlled by the distribution of slope angles within observed and predicted landslide cells. Assigning overly conservative (low) shear strength values results in a higher percentage of landslides accurately identified, but also results in a large over-estimation of the seismic landslide hazard. / text

published_or_final_version / abstract / toc / Geography / Master / Master of Geographic Information System

Στην παρούσα μελέτη έγινε α) αποδελτίωση των εφημερίδων για το χρονικό διάστημα 1960 έως 2008 σχετικά με κατολισθητικά φαινόμενα στο Νομό Ιωαννίνων και β) αναλυτική διερεύνηση των φαινομένων αυτών σε 3 περιοχές του νομού με τη χρήση ιστορικών και βιβλιογραφικών δεδομένων, αποδελτιωμένων πληροφοριών από εφημερίδες καθώς και επιτόπιας χαρτογράφησης και καταγραφής έργων που έγιναν μετά την εκδήλωση των κατολισθήσεων / At the present research study a) we have extracted data from newspapers for the period between 1960 and 2008 considering landslide events at the Prefecture of Ioannina and b) we have analytically investigated these phenomena at 3 regions of the Prefecture by using historical data, scientific literature and data extracted from newspapers as well as on the spot mapping and recording of the reconstruction work that have taken place.

This thesis has examined the 30km long rail corridor through the Lower Buller Gorge, on the Stillwater Ngakawau Line, between SNL96 and 126km, using a landslide risk management approach. The project area is characterised by high annual rainfall (>2,000mm per year), and steep topography (slopes typically ≥20°) adjacent to the rail corridor. The track formation generally follows the natural contour near the base of the hillslope through the Lower Buller Gorge, and consequently involves many curves but relatively limited cut slopes into adjacent rock outcrops. The distance between the base of adjacent hillslopes and rail is frequently <2m horizontally. A variety of basement and Tertiary lithologies are present, including granite, breccias, indurated sandstone/mudstone, and limestone. The primary focus of this thesis has been on upslope-sourced landsliding onto the rail corridor, and on two short lengths (20m and 450m) that currently have a 25km/hour speed restriction imposed at Whitecliffs and Te Kuha respectively. Rainfall-induced and earthquake-generated landslide triggering mechanisms were examined in detail. A landslide inventory has been compiled to determine the characteristics and distribution of identified slope failures over time, and to establish any correlation with topography and geology. Sixty individual landslide events were identified since the line became fully operational in the 1940s, based on desktop reviews, and field inspections for more recent events. To reflect the presence of small magnitude landslide events, a project-specific logarithmic classification of landslides was adopted from <10m³ (very small volume) to ≥10,000m³ (very large volume). An absence of a higher proportion of ‘very small’ to ‘small’ landslide volumes (<100m³) in the inventory reflects incomplete reporting of these comparatively lower magnitude, but higher frequency, events. The establishment of a robust landslide inventory to document future events, in a consistent and readily accessible format, is required for continued monitoring and review of landslide risk management practices in the Lower Buller Gorge. Combining landslide inventory data and physical characteristics of the project area enabled the development of a qualitative landslide zonation map that assigned ‘high’, ‘high-moderate’, ‘moderate’ and ‘low’ landslide susceptibility classes. The principal area of slope instability above the rail corridor is 22.5km in length between SNL103.5 and 126.0km, associated predominantly with basement lithologies (Tuhua Granite; Hawks Crag Breccia; Greenland Group). The most frequently occurring landslides are shallow, typically less than 3m deep, translational failures triggered in regolith or colluvium materials. Rainfall-induced debris slides and flows are dominant, given the high annual rainfall and associated high frequency of high intensity or long duration rainfall events. Very small to medium landslides (<1,000m³) have the potential to impact the rail corridor with an average frequency of around one every two years, causing damage to infrastructure or affecting rail operations. Very large landslides (≥10,000m³) can be expected every 10 to 20 years based on a limited historical record. The narrow rail corridor and absence of sufficient catch areas above or adjacent to the rail causes continual operational challenges due to upslope-sourced landslide debris, and high susceptibility to slope failures, particularly west of SNL103.50km. Development of a rainfall-threshold for proactive inspection of the rail corridor is recommended, including the establishment of a rain gauge network through the Lower Buller Gorge. Earthquake-generated landslides significantly impacted the rail during the magnitude 7.1 Inangahua earthquake in 1968 and to a much lesser extent during the magnitude 6.1 Westport earthquake in 1991. The rail was not fully constructed through the Lower Buller Gorge at the time of the magnitude 7.8 Buller (Murchison) Earthquake in 1929, which generated widespread landsliding in the Buller and Nelson regions. Earthquake-generated landsliding can be expected through the Lower Buller Gorge from earthquakes of magnitude ≥6, and track inspection is recommended in the event of magnitude 5 or greater earthquakes. Detailed geological characterisation and mapping at Whitecliffs and Te Kuha was conducted, including a LiDAR survey at Whitecliffs that enabled visualisation of the ground surface without the interference of vegetation. The limestone outcrop at Whitecliffs comprises 60-70m high near-vertical cliffs with a well-established talus apron at the base, extending to the rail corridor. Three widely spaced open fractures sets are present at the top of Whitecliffs that propagate into the cliff-face. There has been no detectable movement on selected key fracture sets since monitoring commenced in 1993 and there is no confirmed evidence of large-scale cliff collapse during the 1968 Inangahua earthquake. Whitecliffs is not as susceptible to failure as other slopes inspected in the project area due to structural controls, primarily being the dipping of strata back into the cliff-face and widely space joint sets. Establishment of inspection protocols for earthquake events impacting the area, including real-time monitoring of selected fractures at Whitecliffs is recommended. A 2km-length corridor site model produced for Te Kuha demonstrated ‘high’ landslide susceptibility is not confined to slopes above the existing 450m speed restriction zone. Removal of the speed restrictions at Whitecliffs and Te Kuha can be considered, as the increased exposure time is not considered sufficient justification given the extent of other susceptible areas to landsliding affecting the Lower Buller Gorge rail corridor. The principal conclusion from this thesis project is that there is on-going risk to rail operations predominantly from shallow translational landsliding in regolith-colluvium materials. The majority of these will be generated by long-duration or intense rainfall events. Development of threshold-based methods for effective track management is recommended, including the establishment of a rain gauge network through the Lower Buller Gorge, and landslide inventory database. Site-specific engineering measures could be adopted, such as catch benches or avalanche-type shelters, where justified on a cost-benefit basis.

Flow-like mass movement is the most destructive landslide and causes loss of lives and substantial property damage throughout the world every year. This thesis focuses on the spatial and temporal changes of the mass movement in terms of velocity and displacement within the failure mass, and the spatial and temporal distribution of the three dimensional internal deformation of the granular slopes using discrete element method, physical experiments, and natural landslides. We have also studied the effect of weak horizons on the kinematics and internal deformation of granular slopes. Numerical model results show the following features related to a failure mass. The failure mass flows downwards in an undulating pattern with a distinctive velocity heterogeneity. Dilatation within the failure mass is strongly dependent on its mechanical properties. A larger mass moves downslope and the mass moves faster and further in the model with lower internal friction and cohesion. The presence of weak horizons within the granular slope strongly influences displacement, location of the failure surface, and the amount of the failure mass. In addition, results from analogue models and natural landslides are used to outline the mode of granular failure. The collapse of granular slopes results in different-generation extensional faults in the back of the slope, and contractional structures (overturned folds, sheath folds and thrusts) in the toe of the slope. The first-generation normal faults with a steep dip (about 60º) cut across the entire stratigraphy of the slope, whereas the later-generation normal faults with a gentle dip (about 40º) cut across the shallow units. The nature of the runout base has a significant influence on the runout distance, topography and internal deformation of a granular slope. Good agreements are found between models and nature for the collapse of granular slopes in terms of the similar structural distribution in the head and toe of the failure mass and different generations of failure surfaces. The presence of a weak horizon within the granular slope has a significant influence on the granular failure and three dimensional internal deformation of the failure mass.

The landslides, stratigraphy, and surficial geology of the Hydraulic map sheet (NTS 93A/12), located in the interior of British Columbia, were examined. The research centred on landslide processes within the upper Quesnel River valley. It consists of three major components, each conducted at a different scale. At the smallest scale, surficial geological mapping was conducted at a scale of 1:50 000. Three hundred and twenty eight terrain polygons were identified, of which 32% were verified by fieldwork. Polygons containing morainal sediment as its primary surficial material make up 86% of the surficial area. Glaciofluvial and colluvial sediments, confined to the major valleys, are also important units. Glaciolacustrine sediment was rarely identified as the primary sediment but underlies all glaciofluvial terraces within the valleys. Bi-directional ice flow indicators show a strong northwest-southeast orientation while limited uni-directional data indicate flow to the northwest. The medium scale part of the project was a stratigraphic assessment of sediment within the Quesnel and Cariboo River valleys and the description of landslide processes. Twenty four natural exposures were investigated, including nine landslides. Nine stratigraphic units were identified, of which only three are actively involved in modem landslide processes. Advance-phase glaciolacustrine sediment, of the Fraser Glaciation, hosts two styles of failure: I) long-lived, flow dominated failures that occur as a series of smaller events and 2) short-lived, rapid, slide dominated failures. A third style of landsliding was recognized within an upper clay unit and Fraser till. These landslides are short-lived, rapid events that are the most fluid-like failures found within the region. The largest scale research was a detailed site investigation of a landslide using a variety of geophysical methods. Ground penetrating radar techniques offered detailed information on the upper 20 m of surficial material including the internal structure of individual units as well as the ability to image the surface of rupture and the surface of separation. Direct current electrical resistivity and seismic surveys yielded data on the geometries of the stratigraphic units to depths of 40 m and 80 m respectively. Direct current electrical resistivity was further able to image the surfaces of rupture and separation based on the juxtaposition of stratigraphic units. Through the integration of geophysical data with stratigraphy and digital terrain models a three-dimensional structural model of the landslide was created.

Typescript. / Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1974. / Bibliography: leaves 444-451. / xx, 451 leaves ill., maps

Thesis (M.S.)--Ohio University, March, 2004. / Title from PDF t.p. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 73-75).

Thesis (M.S.)--Oregon State University, 1993. / Typescript (photocopy). Includes bibliographical references (leaves 104-108). Also available on the World Wide Web.