O desempenho de uma linha de transmissão de energia está diretamente ligado ao número médio anual de descargas que nela incidem, o qual depende da densidade média de descargas ao solo na região e também do grau de exposição da linha. Modelos com diferentes graus de complexidade são encontrados na literatura para a estimativa da área de atração de estruturas a descargas atmosféricas. Entretanto, além das grandes simplificações sobre a física das descargas nas quais a maioria desses modelos se baseia, até recentemente não era possível considerar a configuração tridimensional das estruturas. Essa é uma limitação importante, pois detalhes do objeto afetam o campo elétrico e, consequentemente, o processo de formação do líder ascendente. Nesse contexto, o modelo desenvolvido em 2006 por Becerra e Cooray - SLIM (\"self-consistently interception model\") utiliza os conceitos mais recentes da física das descargas para a análise dos processos de formação e propagação do líder. Ao contrário dos demais modelos, o SLIM possibilita que se leve em conta a geometria tridimensional da estrutura. O modelo foi validado com base em comparações entre valores de campo elétrico para estabilização do líder em função da altura calculados e medidos em experimentos utilizando a técnica de descargas provocadas por foguetes, tendo-se obtido excelente concordância entre os resultados. Este trabalho destaca os aspectos mais importantes do SLIM e apresenta uma análise comparativa do mesmo com outros modelos bastante conhecidos, como o Modelo Eletrogeométrico, o Modelo de Eriksson e o Modelo de Rizk, além do procedimento simplificado recomendado pelo Guia IEEE Std. 1243. A análise é feita em termos da distância e do raio de atração, do número de descargas incidentes em uma linha de transmissão e do desempenho da mesma frente a descargas atmosféricas, discriminando as taxas de falhas causadas por falha de blindagem e por \"backflashover\". / In general, about 20 % to 60 % of the electric power service interruptions of distribution lines are attributed to lightning. For transmission lines, a typical figure is 70 %. The appraisal of the lightning performance of a power line is related to its mean flash collection rate, which depends on the mean ground flash density of the region and on the line exposure to direct lightning strokes. Models of different degrees of complexity are found in the literature for the estimation of lightning striking distances of objects and structures. However, besides the oversimplifications of the physical nature of the lightning discharge on which most of the models are based, till recently the tridimensional structure configuration could not be considered. This is an important limitation, as edges and other details of the object affect the electric field and, consequently, the upward leader initiation. Within this context, the self-consistently interception model (SLIM) proposed in 2006 by Becerra and Cooray is state-of-the-art leader inception and propagation leader model based on the physics of leader discharges which, unlike the other existing models, enables the tridimensional geometry of the structure to be taken into account. For the validation of the model, data obtained in rocket-triggered lightning experiments were used and an excellent agreement was found between measured and calculated leader stabilization electric fields as a function of the height of the rocket. This work describes the most important aspects of the new model and presents a comparative analysis of SLIM and other well-known model such as the Electrogeometric Model (EGM), Erikssons Model, and Rizks Model, as well as the simplified procedure recommended by IEEE Std. 1243. The analysis is done in terms of the striking distance, attractive radius, and the flash collection rate of a transmission line, as well as on its lightning performance, discriminating between the failure rates caused by shielding failure and backflashover.

La question de la prévision des évènements fortement précipitants se produisant sur le bassin Méditerranéen est au coeur du programme international HyMeX (Hydrological cycle in Mediterranean EXperiment, http://www.hymex.org/) dont l'un des objectifs est d'améliorer la prévision et la prévention des risques hydrométéorologiques du bassin méditerranéen dans le contexte du changement climatique. Durant l'automne 2012, une campagne de mesures de deux mois dite "Période d'Observation Spéciale" (SOP1) a été menée afin de documenter les conditions propices à la formation et au développement des évènements convectifs de type cévenol souvent responsables de crues dévastatrices. Pendant cette SOP1 un dispositif instrumental sans précédent a été déployé avec notamment pour la première fois sur le sol français un imageur à haute résolution spatio-temporelle permettant d'observer les décharges électriques en trois dimensions : le Lightning Mapping Array (LMA). Cet instrument a été combiné aux radars du réseau ARAMIS de Météo-France, et plus précisément aux radars Doppler à diversité de polarisation dans le Sud-Est de la France qui offrent la possibilité d'obtenir des informations sur le type et la distribution des hydrométéores au sein des systèmes précipitants. La production d'éclairs étant le résultat d'une électrisation issue des interactions microphysiques (collisions entre graupels et cristaux de glace en suspension), une description détaillée des différents types d'hydrométéores présents dans les nuages convectifs est essentielle. Dans cette optique, les algorithmes d'identification des hydrométéores développés par Météo-France ont été évalués puis améliorés. Les résultats de cette étude ont montré que les restitutions entre les différents radars étaient plutôt cohérentes, à condition que l'information sur l'altitude de l'isotherme 0°C soit correcte. Ce travail a ensuite été complété par la création, via une méthode originale, de composites 3D d'hydrométéores permettant de décrire la microphysique majoritairement présente dans les systèmes convectifs observés pendant la campagne HyMeX. La deuxième partie de ce travail s'est basée sur l'exploitation de la synergie radar-LMA sur une ligne de grain observée durant la SOP1 de HyMeX. Les principales informations déduites de ce couplage ont mis en exergue l'importance des processus microphysiques intervenant dans l'électrisation du nuage d'orage, ainsi que l'impact du relief sur l'activité électrique globale du système convectif. Sur les quatre heures de données analysées du 24 Septembre 2012, le déclenchement et la propagation des éclairs ont majoritairement été observés dans les espèces microphysiques que sont le graupel, les cristaux de glace et dans une moindre mesure la grêle. Cette étude souligne également le rôle important de la topographie sur l'activité électrique et montre que le passage d'un faible relief peut dramatiquement influencer la distribution et l'intensité des éclairs dans les régions convectives. / The Hydrological cycle in Mediterranean Experiment (HyMeX, http://www.hymex.org/) is a 10-year research program focusing on the quantification and understanding of the water cycle in the Mediterranean at various time and spatial scales with particular emphasis on high-impact weather events. This study takes place within the framework of the first HyMeX field phase (HyMeX-SOP1), which was conducted in the autumn 2012. The unique and extensive dataset collected during this field campaign offers the possibility to further investigate the complex relationships between cloud microphysics and lightning at play within mesoscale convective systems observed in southern France. With this regard, the present study make the use of a Lightning Mapping Array (LMA) along with operational dual-polarization weather radar. The first instrument allows documenting the three-dimensional lightning activity, whereas the second has the ability to determine the type of hydrometeors within cloud systems. Since the production of lightning is the result of an electrification created by microphysical collisions between graupels and ice crystals in suspension, a highly detailed description of hydrometeor types within convective clouds is needed. With this respect, an improved version of Météo-France hydrometeor classification algorithm was developed and evaluated so as to be able to discriminate between a large number of microphysics species. Overall hydrometeor species retrieved from a pair of neighbouring radars within a common sampling area are consistent from one to another. This study has however pointed out the need to check the consistency related to the identification of 0°C isotherm derived from numerical weather prediction model outputs before to perform hydrometeor identification. As a follow up to this work, a novel interpolation method allowing the remapping of single-radar hydrometeor fields onto a common Cartesian grid was developed in order to get access the three-dimensional hydrometeor distribution within HyMeX convective systems. Another part of this work aims at combining LMA and polarimetric radar observations to infer relationships between the total lightning activity, microphysics, and kinematics within the intense bow-echo system observed above the complex terrain of southern France during HyMeX. Using the synergy between LMA and polarimetric radar data, it is underlined that microphysical processes involved in cloud electrification, along with the impact of the topography play at part onto the global lightning activity. Based on a 4h analysis on the 24 Setptember 2012, it is found that lighting initiation and propagation take preferentially place within graupel, ice and to a lesser extent hail regions. This study also highlights the important role of topography on lightning activity and shows that even a small hill can dramatically influence the distribution and intensity of lightning within convective areas.

Title: Proposal for improving the game day experience in the ELH based on the NHL Objectives: The main goal of the diploma thesis is to suggest the program arrangement of the game day for the visitors of the Czech hockey league. The thesis targets on new features appropriate for the Czech environment but also for the improvement of the current ones. Another goal of the thesis is to describe the attitude of the game day management teams to the accompanying program in ELH and NHL which represent the image of the league itself. Methods: The main sources for collecting the data are as the following: a structured observation and in-depth interviews. All of the information is collected based on the questions created for the purpose of the thesis. The theoretical part of the thesis is based on the literature sources and the consultations with experts in the field of the Czech and Canadian-American icehockey. Results: The main result of the diploma thesis is the suggestion for the improvement of the gameday program of the club HC Sparta Praha. The suggestion was prepared based on the analysis using the methods stated above. The suggestion includes elements usable in front of the arena before the game starts. The other elements cover the program inside of the arena and during the game itself. Keywords: Ice...

A primary motivation for this research comes from the need to improve the ability of polymer-matrix composites to withstand lightning strikes. In particular, we are concerned with lightning strike damage in composite wind turbine blades. The direct effects of lightning strike on polymer-matrix composites often include rapid temperature rise, melting or burning at the lightning attachment points, and mechanical damage due to lightning-induced magnetic force and acoustic shock wave. The lightning strike damage accumulation problem is essentially multiphysic. The lightning plasma channel discharges an electric current up to 200 kA, inducing a severe heat flux at the surface of the composite structure, as well as generating Joule heating through the composite structure. The resulting electro-thermo-mechanical response of the composite structure may include matrix degradation and decomposition, delamination, and fiber breakage and sublimation, thus leading to catastrophic failure. The existing studies related to the lightning strike damage in composites ignored the lightning channel radius expansion during the initial lightning discharge and lacked adequate treatment of material phase transitions. These assumptions significantly simplify the mathematical treatment of the problem and affect the predictive capabilities of the models. Another common feature of these limited studies is that they all focused on carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix (CFRP) composites, which are electrically conductive. In the present thesis, the thermal responses and thermal ablations in a non-conductive glass-fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix (GFRP) composite wind turbine blade and in a conductive CFRP composite wind turbine blade are studied, respectively. In the case of non-conductive GFRP composite wind turbine blade, prior to the thermal response and thermal ablation analysis, a finite element analysis is performed to calculate the electric field due to lightning stepped leader to estimate the dielectric breakdown of the non-conductive composite wind turbine blade. The estimation of dielectric breakdown is used to determine whether Joule heating needs to be included in the problem formulation. To predict the thermal response and thermal ablation in the composite structure due to lightning strike, a physics-based model describing surface interaction between the lightning channel and the composite structure has been developed. The model consists of: (i) spatial and temporal evolution of the lightning channel as a function of the electric current waveform; (ii) temporary and spatially non-uniform heat flux and current density (in the case of electrically conductive CFRP composite or if dielectric breakdown occurs in the case of non-conductive GFRP composite) generated at the composite structure; and (iii) nonlinear transient heat transfer problem formulation for layered anisotropic composites that includes the moving boundary of the expanding lightning channel and the phase transition moving boundary associated with instantaneous material removal due to sublimation. The model has been employed to investigate the thermal responses and thermal ablations in a GFRP composite laminated panel used in a Sandia 100-meter all-glass baseline wind turbine blade (SNL 100-00) and a typical CFRP composite laminated panel subjected to lightning strike. The temperature-dependent directional material properties for both the GFRP and CFRP composites have been determined in this thesis using a micromechanics approach based on the experimental data for fibers and resin. An integrated Matlab-ABAQUS numerical procedure features the aforementioned aspects (i), (ii), and (iii) of the developed model. The obtained results include the evolution of temperature fields in the composite laminated panel and the progressive shape change of the composite laminated panel due to thermal ablation. The predictions of thermal ablation in the CFRP composite laminated panel are validated by reported experimental results.

Ce travail s'inscrit dans une problématique de mise en œuvre et d'étude d'un revêtement conducteur polymère extrinsèque pour la protection foudre des structures aéronautiques de type composite polymère renforcé fibres de carbone (CFRP). Le revêtement est composé d'une matrice poly(époxy) haute performance bi-composant fluide à température ambiante et de fils submicroniques d'argent à haut facteur de forme (AgNWs) obtenus par un procédé polyol. Une attention particulière a été portée à l'étude de l'influence des AgNWs sur la modification de la cinétique de réticulation du système, sa structure physique et sa mobilité moléculaire. La mesure des niveaux de conductivité volumique et surfacique du revêtement met en avant un seuil de percolation électrique pour un taux volumique en AgNWs inférieur à 1%. Une approche originale permettant la détermination des mécanismes de conduction a été effectuée au moyen des mesures de densités de courant imposées dans le revêtement en fonction du taux de charge en AgNWs et de la température. L'analyse du comportement électrique des échantillons aux valeurs critiques de densités de courant a permis d'appréhender les phénomènes responsables des mécanismes de dégradation. Enfin des essais foudres ont été effectués sur des substrats représentatifs d'une structure aéronautique avec différents types de protection foudre. L'analyse des échantillons par ultrasons après essais foudres a mis en avant l'efficacité du revêtement composite polymère conducteur poly(époxy)/AgNWs développé pour lutter contre le délaminage structurel du CFRP. / This work deals with the processing and the study of an extrinsic conductive polymer coating for the lightning strike protection of the aircraft carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) structural parts. The coating consist in a low viscosity bi component high performance poly(epoxy) matrix and silver submicronic wires with a high aspect ratio (AgNWs) obtained by a polyol process. The kinetic parameters, the physical structure and the molecular mobility of the matrix had been investigated as a function of the filler content. The surface and bulk conductivities had been measured as a function of filler content. It exhibits a percolation threshold below 1% in volume. The conduction mechanisms had been studied following an uncommon method of current density measurement as a function of the AgNWs content and the temperature. The critical electrical behaviour of each sample had been investigated through the current density method. It has permitted to understand the phenomenon responsible for the composite's degradation. Finally, lightning strike tests on representative configurations had been carried out. The ultrasonic inspections have highlighted the efficiency of the poly(epoxy)/AgNWs coating to avoid the structural delamination of the CFRP.

<p>The study presented in this thesis was motivated by the large uncertainty on the concentration of atmospheric electrical discharges to the global nitrogen budget. This uncertainty is partly due to the fact that information concerning the <i>NO</i><i>x</i> production efficiency of electrical discharges having current signatures similar to those of lightning flashes is not available in the literature. Another reason for this uncertainty is the fact that energy is used as a figure of merit in evaluating <i>NO</i><i>x</i> production from lightning flashes even though insufficient knowledge is available concerning the energy dissipation in lightning flashes. The third reason for this uncertainty is the lack of knowledge concerning the contribution of discharge processes other than return strokes to the <i>NO</i><i>x</i> production in the atmosphere. Lightning is not the only process in the atmosphere that causes ionisation and dissociation of atmospheric air. Cosmic rays continuously bombard the Earth with high energetic particles and radiation causing ionization and dissociation of air leading to the production of <i>NO</i><i>x</i> in the atmosphere. The work carried out in this thesis is an attempt to improve the current knowledge on the way in which these processes contribute to the global <i>NO</i><i>x</i> production. Experiments have been conducted in this thesis to estimate the <i>NO</i><i>x</i> production efficiency of streamer discharges, laser-induced plasma, laboratory sparks having current signatures similar to those of lightning flashes, alpha particle impact in air and finally with the lightning flash itself. The results obtained from laboratory electrical discharges show the following: (a) The <i>NO</i><i>x</i> production efficiency, in terms of energy, of positive streamer discharges is more or less similar to those of hot discharges. (b) The <i>NO</i><i>x</i> production efficiency of an electrical discharge depends not only on the energy but also on the peak and the shape of the current waveform. (c) The current signature is a better figure of merit in evaluating the <i>NO</i><i>x</i> yield of electrical discharges. As a part of this thesis work a direct measurement of <i>NO</i><i>x</i> generated by lightning flashes was conducted and the results show that slow discharge processes such as continuing currents could be the main source of <i>NO</i><i>x</i> in lightning flashes. Concerning <i>NO</i><i>x</i> production by other ionisation processes such as alpha particle impacts in the atmosphere, the data gathered in this thesis show that each ionising event in air leads to the creation of one <i>NO</i><i>x</i> molecule. In terms of energy the <i>NO</i><i>x</i> production efficiency of alpha particles is similar to that of electrical discharges. The theoretical studies conducted within this thesis indicate that M-components contribute more than the return strokes to the <i>NO</i><i>x</i> production. The calculations also show that the contribution to the global <i>NO</i><i>x</i> budget by return stroke is not as high as that assumed in the current literature.</p>

This degree project consists of “A photographic journey through Vietnam”. One month was spent in Vietnam where the different aspects of the Vietnamese life were documented in images. The journey began in Hanoi and descended down the country to Ho Chi Minh City.The report describes the compositional elements of photography and makes an attempt to describe what a “good” image is. Furthermore it explains what equipment that is necessary for such a journey and how you can interact with the local population.When the journey came to an end, a photographic book consisting of 200 images was created. The report details the used workflow step by step. Finally the author has commented 20 of the selected images regarding their photographic composition.

<p>The high power, broadband very low frequency (VLF, 3--30 kHz) and extremely low frequency (ELF, 3--3000 Hz) electromagnetic waves generated by lightning discharges and propagating in the Earth-ionosphere waveguide can be used to measure the average electron density profile of the lower ionosphere (<italic>D</italic> region) across the wave propagation path due to several reflections by the upper boundary (lower ionosphere) of the waveguide. This capability makes it possible to frequently and even continuously monitor the <italic>D</italic> region electron density profile variations over geographically large regions, which are measurements that are essentially impossible by other means. These guided waves, usually called atmospherics (or sferics for short), are recorded by our sensors located near Duke University. The purpose of this work is to develop and implement algorithms to derive the variations of <italic>D</italic> region electron density profile which is modeled by two parameters (one is height and another is sharpness), by comparing the recorded sferic spectra to a series of model simulated sferic spectra from using a finite difference time domain (FDTD) code.</p><p>In order to understand the time scales, magnitudes and sources for the midlatitude nighttime <italic>D</italic> region variations, we analyzed the sferic data of July and August 2005, and extracted both the height and sharpness of the <italic>D</italic> region electron density profile. The heights show large temporal variations of several kilometers on some nights and the relatively stable behavior on others. Statistical calculations indicate that the hourly average heights during the two months range between 82.0 km and 87.2 km with a mean value of 84.9 km and a standard deviation of 1.1 km. We also observed spatial variations of height as large as 2.0 km over 5 degrees latitudes on some nights, and no spatial variation on others. In addition, the measured height variations exhibited close correlations with local lightning occurrence rate on some nights but no correlation with local lightning or displaced lightning on others. The nighttime profile sharpness during 2.5 hours in two different nights was calculated, and the results were compared to the equivalent sharpness derived from International Reference Ionosphere (IRI) models. Both the absolute values and variation trends in IRI models are different from those in broadband measurements.</p><p>Based on sferic data similar to those for nighttime, we also measured the daytime <italic>D</italic> region electron density profile variations in July and August 2005 near Duke University. As expected, the solar radiation is the dominant but not the only determinant source for the daytime <italic>D</italic> region profile height temporal variations. The observed quiet time heights showed close correlations with solar zenith angle changes but unexpected spatial variations not linked to the solar zenith angle were also observed on some days, with 15% of days exhibiting regional differences larger than 0.5 km. During the solar flare, the induced height change was approximately proportional to the logarithm of the X-ray fluxes. During the rising and decaying phases of the solar flare, the height changes correlated more consistently with the short (wavelength 0.5-4 &Aring), rather than the long (wavelength 1-8 &Aring) X-ray flux changes. The daytime profile sharpness during morning, noontime and afternoon periods in three different days and for the solar zenith angle range 20 to 75 degrees was calculated. These broadband measured results were compared to narrowband VLF measurements, IRI models and Faraday rotation base IRI models (called FIRI). The estimated sharpness from all these sources was more consistent when the solar zenith angle was small than when it was large.</p><p>By applying the nighttime and daytime measurement techniques, we also derived the <italic>D</italic> region variations during sunrise and sunset periods. The measurements showed that both the electron density profile height and sharpness decrease during the sunrise period while increase during the sunset period.</p> / Dissertation

The NASA Kennedy Space Center (KSC) is situated along the east coast of central Florida, where a high frequency of lightning occurs annually. Although cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning forecasting using radar echoes has been thoroughly analyzed, few studies have examined intracloud (IC) and/or total (IC CG) lightning. In addition to CG lightning, IC flashes are of great concern to KSC launch operations. Four years (2006-2009) of summer (June, July, August) daytime (about 14-00 Z) Weather Surveillance Radar – 1988 Doppler data for Melbourne, FL were analyzed. Convective cells were tracked using a modified version of the Storm Cell Identification and Tracking (SCIT) algorithm and then correlated to CG lightning data from the National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN), as well as grouped IC flash data acquired from the KSC Lightning Detection and Ranging (LDAR) networks I and II. Pairs of reflectivity values (30, 35, and 40 dBZ) at isothermal levels (-10, -15, -20 and updraft -10 degrees C), as well as a vertically integrated ice (VII) product were used to optimize criteria for radar-based forecasting of both IC and CG lightning within storms. Results indicate that the best radar-derived predictor of CG lightning according to CSI was 25 dBZ at -20 degrees C, while the best reflectivity at isothermal predictor for IC was 25 dBZ at -15 degrees C. Meanwhile, the best VII predictor of CG lightning was the 30th percentile (0.840 kg m-2), while the best VII predictor of IC was the 5th percentile (0.143 kg m-2), or nearly 6 times lower than for CG! VII at both CG and IC initiation was higher than at both CG and IC cessation. VII was also found to be lower at IC occurrence, including at initiation, than at CG occurrence. Seventy-six percent of cells had IC initiation before CG initiation; using the first IC flash as a predictor of CG occurrence also statistically outperformed other predictors of CG lightning. Even though average lead time for using IC as a predictor of CG was only 2.4 minutes, when taking into account automation processing and radar scan time for the other methods, lead times are much more comparable.

Cloud-to-ground lightning strikes produce natural glasses on the surface of the Earth, called fulgurites. These natural glasses are tubular in shape with a central void surrounded by an inner glass, and the inner glass is surrounded by an outer crust or toasted region. Previous studies report different kinds of melts existing in several different types of fulgurites; however, little to no chemical data has been collected that tracks chemical variations from the inner glass to the outer crust of a fulgurite. This study uses microprobe and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer analytical techniques to collect transects of chemical composition from the inner glass to the outer crust of eleven fulgurites. Five of the eleven fulgurite samples show a well-mixed, volatile-depleted inner glass, enclosed in a poorly mixed volatile enriched outer melt, suggesting that these fulgurites formed from the vaporization and condensation of materials on the inner fulgurite wall. The remaining six fulgurites show poorly mixed melts in both the inner glass and outer crust regions, and most likely originated as lightning-produced melting phenomena. These data suggest that certain enigmatic natural glasses, such as Edeowie, Dakhleh and other unknown desert glasses, may be lightning-produced, in contrast to the meteorite burst or impact related origins that have commonly been propounded.