This thesis discusses the growth of thin-film silicon layers suitable for solar cells using liquid phase epitaxy and the behaviour of oxide LPCVD silicon nitride stacks on silicon in a high temperature ambient.¶ The work on thin film cells is focussed on the characteristics of layers grown using liquid phase epitaxy. The morphology resulting from different seeding patterns, the transfer of dislocations to the epitaxial layer and the lifetime of layers grown using oxide compared with carbonised photoresist barrier layers are discussed. The second half of this work discusses boron doping of epitaxial layers. Simultaneous layer growth and boron doping is demonstrated, and shown to produce a 35um thick layer with a back surface field approximately 3.5um thick.¶ If an oxide/nitride stack is formed in the early stages of cell processing, then characteristics of the nitride may enable increased processing flexibility and hence the realisation of novel cell structures. An oxide/nitride stack on silicon also behaves as a good anti- reflection coating. The effects of a nitride deposited using low pressure chemical vapour deposition on the underlying wafer are discussed. With a thin oxide layer between the silicon and the silicon nitride, deposition is shown not to significantly alter effective life-times.¶ Heating an oxide/nitride stack on silicon is shown to result in a large drop in effective Lifetimes. As long as at least a thin oxide is present, it is shown that a high temperature nitrogen anneal results in a reduction in surface passivation, but does not significantly affect bulk lifetime. The reduction in surface passivation is shown to be due to a loss of hydrogen from the silicon/silicon oxide interface and is characterised by an increase in Joe. Higher temperatures, thinner oxides, thinner nitrides and longer anneal times are all shown to result in high Joe values. A hydrogen loss model is introduced to explain the observations.¶ Various methods of hydrogen re-introduction and hence Joe recovery are then discussed with an emphasis on high temperature forming gas anneals. The time necessary for successful Joe recovery is shown to be primarily dependent on the nitride thickness and on the temperature of the nitrogen anneal. With a high temperature forming gas anneal, Joe recovery after nitrogen anneals at both 900 and 1000oC and with an optimised anti-reflection coating is demonstrated for chemically polished wafers.¶ Finally the effects of oxide/nitride stacks and high temperature anneals in both nitrogen and forming gas are discussed for a variety of wafers. The optimal emitter sheet resistance is shown to be independent of nitrogen anneal temperature. With textured wafers, recovery of Joe values after a high temperature nitrogen anneal is demonstrated for wafers with a thick oxide, but not for wafers with a thin oxide. This is shown to be due to a lack of surface passivation at the silicon/oxide interface.

Este trabalho apresenta um método desenvolvido pela autora para, através de simulações multifísicas pelo Método dos Elementos Finitos (MEF), servir como ferramenta de apoio ao projeto e fabricação de guias de onda e moduladores eletro-ópticos em óptica integrada, além de possibilitar a análise da performance de moduladores eletro-ópticos. A técnica adotada para a fabricação dos guias de onda ópticos foi a de tensão mecânica. Os parâmetros de geometria (espessura do filme e larguras das trincheiras) e de temperatura de deposição do filme são definidos nas simulações e utilizados no processo de fabricação de guias de ondas em óptica integrada, que servem de base para a fabricação de moduladores eletro-ópticos em substrato cristalino de retículo cúbico. As trincheiras dos guias de onda do tipo canal são construídas em Germanato de Bismuto (BGO - Bi4Ge3O12), a partir da deposição sobre o substrato de um filme fino indutor de tensão mecânica (stress) Nitreto de Silício (Si3N4) e definidas pelos processos de litografia óptica e corrosão seletiva por plasma. Os moduladores são obtidos através da deposição dos eletrodos de alumínio sobre o filme, seguida de Si3N4 dos processos de litografia óptica e corrosão, obtendo-se eletrodos. O processo iterativo proposto inicia-se com os resultados das simulações, em que são definidos os parâmetros de fabricação do filme, da trincheira e dos eletrodos. Após a fabricação desses elementos, o componente é caracterizado e são medidos os parâmetros reais filme e do substrato. Esses valores são realimentados nas simulações para refinar o projeto do componente. O trabalho, além de apresentar todos os passos do processo interativo de simulações, projeto, fabricação e caracterização do componente desejado, indica as dificuldades encontradas na implementação do processo e as atividades futuras a serem desenvolvidas para o aperfeiçoamento do mesmo. / This work presents a method developed by the author to support the project and fabrication of integrated optic waveguides and electro-optic modulators by means of Finite Element Method (FEM) multiphysics simulations, also enabling the electro-optic modulators performance analysis. The technique used for fabricating the optical waveguides was the thermally induced residual stress (ISS). The geometry parameters (film thicknesses and trenches widths) and the film deposition temperature are obtained in the simulations and subsequently used in the integrated optical waveguides fabrication process, which serve as a basic building block for the electrooptic modulators on crystalline cubic lattice substrate. The channel waveguide trenches are built on Bismuth Germanate (BGO Bi4Ge3O12) by depositing a Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) Stress-inducing thin film, being later defined by optical lithography and plasma etching process. Modulators are obtained depositing aluminum on the Si3N4 film followed by the optical lithography and corrosion process, defining electrodes. The proposed iterative process starts with the simulation results that define the fabrication parameters of the film, trench and electrodes. After the fabrication of these elements, the device is characterized and the actual parameters of the film and substrate are measured. These values are fed back into the simulations to refine the component design. The work besides presenting all the simulation-design-fabrication-characterization iterative process for obtaining the devised device also highlights the difficulties encountered in the implementation process along with suggestions of future activities aiming at improving it.

Este trabalho apresenta um método desenvolvido pela autora para, através de simulações multifísicas pelo Método dos Elementos Finitos (MEF), servir como ferramenta de apoio ao projeto e fabricação de guias de onda e moduladores eletro-ópticos em óptica integrada, além de possibilitar a análise da performance de moduladores eletro-ópticos. A técnica adotada para a fabricação dos guias de onda ópticos foi a de tensão mecânica. Os parâmetros de geometria (espessura do filme e larguras das trincheiras) e de temperatura de deposição do filme são definidos nas simulações e utilizados no processo de fabricação de guias de ondas em óptica integrada, que servem de base para a fabricação de moduladores eletro-ópticos em substrato cristalino de retículo cúbico. As trincheiras dos guias de onda do tipo canal são construídas em Germanato de Bismuto (BGO - Bi4Ge3O12), a partir da deposição sobre o substrato de um filme fino indutor de tensão mecânica (stress) Nitreto de Silício (Si3N4) e definidas pelos processos de litografia óptica e corrosão seletiva por plasma. Os moduladores são obtidos através da deposição dos eletrodos de alumínio sobre o filme, seguida de Si3N4 dos processos de litografia óptica e corrosão, obtendo-se eletrodos. O processo iterativo proposto inicia-se com os resultados das simulações, em que são definidos os parâmetros de fabricação do filme, da trincheira e dos eletrodos. Após a fabricação desses elementos, o componente é caracterizado e são medidos os parâmetros reais filme e do substrato. Esses valores são realimentados nas simulações para refinar o projeto do componente. O trabalho, além de apresentar todos os passos do processo interativo de simulações, projeto, fabricação e caracterização do componente desejado, indica as dificuldades encontradas na implementação do processo e as atividades futuras a serem desenvolvidas para o aperfeiçoamento do mesmo. / This work presents a method developed by the author to support the project and fabrication of integrated optic waveguides and electro-optic modulators by means of Finite Element Method (FEM) multiphysics simulations, also enabling the electro-optic modulators performance analysis. The technique used for fabricating the optical waveguides was the thermally induced residual stress (ISS). The geometry parameters (film thicknesses and trenches widths) and the film deposition temperature are obtained in the simulations and subsequently used in the integrated optical waveguides fabrication process, which serve as a basic building block for the electrooptic modulators on crystalline cubic lattice substrate. The channel waveguide trenches are built on Bismuth Germanate (BGO Bi4Ge3O12) by depositing a Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) Stress-inducing thin film, being later defined by optical lithography and plasma etching process. Modulators are obtained depositing aluminum on the Si3N4 film followed by the optical lithography and corrosion process, defining electrodes. The proposed iterative process starts with the simulation results that define the fabrication parameters of the film, trench and electrodes. After the fabrication of these elements, the device is characterized and the actual parameters of the film and substrate are measured. These values are fed back into the simulations to refine the component design. The work besides presenting all the simulation-design-fabrication-characterization iterative process for obtaining the devised device also highlights the difficulties encountered in the implementation process along with suggestions of future activities aiming at improving it.

In der vorliegenden Dissertation wird die Entwicklung eines MEMS Herstellungsverfahrens beschrieben. Der Bosch patentierte EPyC-Prozess bietet die Möglichkeit komplexe MEMS-Strukturen mit hoher Effektivität auf engem Raum herzustellen. Zielsetzung dieser Arbeit ist die Untersuchung und Optimierung der EPyC-Einzelprozesse, sowie der Aufbau eines Mikrospiegelantriebs mit 40 μm hohen Elektrodenfingern für hohe z-Auslenkungen. Die Herstellung von MEMS-Strukturen mit dem EPyC-Prozess erfordert eine gute elektrische und mechanische Funktionalität der dicken epitaktischen Siliziumschichten. Durch Wiederholung der EPyC-Zyklen entsteht eine 3D-Opferstruktur. Die Herausforderung besteht darin, hohe Volumina an Polysilizium am Ende des Prozesses vollständig zu entfernen. Durch das Wiederholen von fünf EPyC Zyklen wurde der Mikrospiegelantrieb mit 40 μm hohen vertikalen Kammelektroden erfolgreich hergestellt. Anschließend wurde der Mikrospiegelantrieb mit dem optimierten Silizium-Ätzprozess in zwei Schritten freigestellt. Damit der Mikrospiegelantrieb mechanisch beweglich und elektrisch funktional wird, wurde die SiO2-Passivierung auf den Funktionsstrukturen mittels HF-Gasphasenätzen erfolgreich entfernt. Die elektrischen und mechanischen Funktionalitäten des Mikrospiegelantriebes wurden mittels Laservibrometer geprüft und bestätigt.:1 Einleitung 1 1.1 Stand der Technik 3 1.2 Zielsetzung 6 1.3 EPyC-Prozess 7 2 Methoden 16 2.1 Abscheideverfahren 16 2.1.1 Chemische Depositionsverfahren 16 2.1.2 LPCVD-Verfahren 17 2.1.3 Thermische Oxidation 22 2.1.4 Kathodenstrahlzerstäubung (Sputtern) 23 2.2 Silizium Dotieren 24 2.3 Strukturieren von Silizium mit dem DRIE-Prozess (Deep Reactive Ion Etching) 24 2.4 Strukturieren von dielektrischen Schichten: Reaktiven Ionenätzen (RIE) 27 2.5 Gasphasenätzen von Oxid mit HF-Dampf 28 2.6 Isotopes Silizium-Opferschicht Trockenätzen 28 2.6.1 Plasmaloses isotropes Siliziumätzen mit Xenondifluorid 28 2.6.2 Plasmaunterstütztes isotropes Siliziumätzen mit Schwefelhexafluorid 31 2.7 Charakterisierung der abgeschiedenen Schichten 31 2.7.1 Kristallstruktur 31 2.7.2 Mechanische Charakterisierung 33 2.7.3 Elektrische Charakterisierung 37 2.8 Elektrische und mechanische Charakterisierung der hergestellten 3D-MEMS Struktur 38 3 Ergebnisse 41 3.1 Ablauf des Herstellungsprozesses eines einzelnen EPyC-Zyklus mit unterschiedlich dicken Epi und ihre Charakterisierung 41 3.1.1 Ablauf der Abscheidung eines einzelnen EPyC-Zyklus 44 3.1.2 Charakterisierung der abgeschiedenen Schichten 50 3.1.2.3.1 Epi-Schicht (𝒅 = 𝟐𝟎 μ𝒎) 61 3.1.3 DRIE-Prozess für dicke Epi-Schichten 64 3.1.4 Trench-Verfüllung 69 3.1.5 Siliziumopferschichttechnik 86 3.2 Herstellung eines Mikrospiegelantriebs mittels fünf EPyC Zyklen 105 3.2.1 Ablauf der Mikrospiegelantriebsherstellung mittels EPyC-Prozesses 106 3.2.2 Charakterisierung des hergestellten Mikrospiegelantriebs 115 4 Zusammenfassung Abbildungsverzeichnis Tabellenverzeichnis Eigene Veröffentlichungen Thesen