Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder. Its cause(s) are predominantly unknown; however, a subset of cases has a genetic origin. Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are the most common genetic cause of PD. Cases are clinically indistinguishable from idiopathic PD and display incomplete penetrance. Thereby, it is predicted that genetic vulnerability combined with environmental factors cause pathogenesis. However, the identity of these factors is unknown. Unfortunately, LRRK2`s native and pathogenic biological function(s) remain to be defined; owing to obstacles including a complex protein structure and the lack of pathological phenotypes in LRRK2 research models. To address the knowledge gap in LRRK2 biology, we set out to investigate the role of LRRK2 in the central nervous system (CNS). We generated and characterized a disease-mimicking D. melanogaster model of LRRK2-linked PD. This system was utilized to perform an in vivo, unbiased, high-throughput genetic screen to identify candidate interactors of LRRK2. Successful identification of a discrete number of genetic interactors was accomplished and, coupled with published evidence, highlighted the pursuit of subsequent mitochondrial-related investigations of LRRK2. These studies were performed using the M. musculus model system. Since LRRK2 murine models lack disease-relevant phenotypes, and LRRK2’s incomplete penetrance is predicted to be the result of gene-environment interaction, we employed the mitochondrial-targeting exogenous neurotoxin – MPTP/MPP+, to investigate neuronal mitochondrial phenotypes and subsequent survival in the context of LRRK2. Using the pathogenic R1441 GTPase-linked mutation, we did not observe altered neuronal mitochondrial length phenotypes or enhanced CNS sensitization to MPTP/MPP+-induced death; highlighting that MPTP-mediated, mitochondrial-centered mechanisms of action should be approached cautiously in the context of R1441-LRRK2. Collectively, the work presented herein has unveiled novel targets for the exploration of LRRK2 biological function and encourages the investigation of alternative pathogenic trigger mechanisms in the context of LRRK2-linked PD.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative movement disorder characterized by the loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. The mechanism by which these DA neurons die is still unclear and under investigation. Although mostly idiopathic, about 10% of PD cases have shown familial inheritance. Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), a large multi-domain protein with unknown physiological and pathological roles, have been linked to PD cases of autosomal dominant inheritance. A PD Drosophilamelanogaster model over expressing the human LRRK2(I2020T) kinase mutant using the GAL4/UAS system has shown a loss of DA neurons and locomotor deficiency. Additionally, ectopic overexpression of human LRRK2 in the eye caused a damaged eye phenotype characterized by roughness of the surface, loss of pigmentation and presence of black lesions (Venderova Ket. al., 2009). The presence of this identifiable eye phenotype has allowed us to perform a suppressor/enhancer screen to identify possible genetic interactors of LRRK2. The LRRK2(I2020T) transgenic flies were crossed with genomic deficiency lines and the eye phenotype screened for either suppression or enhancement. Twenty-two genes, which are implicated in a variety of biological processes, have been identified thus far. Fourteen of these 22 interacting genes were assessed in the DA neurons of the D.melanogaster model. This functional screen is a rapid method to provide us with potential genetic interactions between LRRK2 and other genes, which will in turn, aid in elucidating the functional role of LRRK2 in PD pathology.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・論文博士 / 博士(医学) / 乙第13384号 / 論医博第2216号 / 新制||医||1048(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 高橋 淳, 教授 渡邊 直樹, 教授 中川 一路 / 学位規則第4条第2項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

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Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / A doença de Parkinson (DP) é a segunda doença neurodegenerativa mais frequente no mundo, afetando 1-2% da população acima de 65 anos, caracterizada clinicamente por tremor em repouso, bradicinesia, instabilidade postural e rigidez muscular. Essas manifestações surgem devido à degeneração neuronal progressiva e à presença de inclusões proteicas ricas em &#945;-sinucleína. A DP é decorrente da interação entre fatores ambientais e genéticos, e entre os fatores genéticos, variantes exônicas de transmissão dominante nos genes LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2), VPS35 (vacuolar protein sorting 35) e EIF4G1 (eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4-gamma 1) têm sido associadas à etiologia da doença. Entretanto, estudos sobre o efeito dessas variantes na população brasileira são raros ou inexistentes. Por essa razão, neste trabalho rastreamos mutações nos genes VPS35 (p.D620N; p.R524W), EIF4G1 (p.R1205H; p.A502V) e LRRK2 (p.G2019S) em uma amostra de 582 pacientes brasileiros com DP não aparentados e 329 indivíduos controles saudáveis. Além disso, conduzimos o primeiro estudo caso-controle para análise de variantes exônicas raras (p.Q1111H, p.T1410M, p.M1646T, p.S1761R, p.Y2189C) e comuns (p.N551K, p.R1398H, p.K1423K) no gene LRRK2 em um subgrupo de 329 pacientes brasileiros com DP, não aparentados, naturais da região sudeste. Esse subgrupo foi analisado e comparado com 222 indivíduos controles saudáveis a fim de verificar associações dessas variantes e a DP. Em relação às mutações dos genes VPS35 e EIF4G1, não foram encontradas alterações nos pacientes com DP. A mutação p.G2019S no gene LRRK2 foi encontrada em 15 probandos (2,6%), dos quais 9 são do sexo feminino (64,3%). O tremor em repouso foi observado em 47,36% dos pacientes com a mutação p.G2019S como primeiro sintoma motor. As análises das variantes raras no gene LRRK2 não revelaram qualquer associação estatisticamente significante. Entre as variantes comuns, a p.K1423K mostrou evidência de associação de risco com a DP (p<0,05) na estratificação contendo o grupo de indivíduos com história familiar da doença e para as variantes p.N551K e p.R1398H não foram observadas associações. A análise do haplótipo p.N551K-p.R1398H-p.K1423K revelou associação de proteção na amostra sudeste e na estratificação Rio de Janeiro (p<0,05). Esse haplótipo não está em desequilíbrio de ligação na amostra de 222 indivíduos controles brasileiros analisados (r2&#8804;45). Os resultados obtidos neste estudo representam contribuições valiosas ao entendimento da relação entre as variantes genéticas estudadas e o risco de desenvolvimento da doença de Parkinson, principalmente no que se refere aos endofenótipos associados. / Parkinsons disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder in the world, affecting 1-2% of population more than 65 years of age, clinically recognized by resting tremor, bradykinesia, postural instability and rigidity. These manifestations occur due to progressive neuronal degeneration and to the presence of protein inclusions enriched with &#945;-synuclein. PD results from the interaction between environmental and genetic factors, and, among genetic factors, dominant exonic variants in LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2), VPS35 (vacuolar protein sorting 35) e EIF4G1 (eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4-gamma 1) genes have been described as causes of the disease. However, studies of the effect of these variants in Brazilian population are rare or do not exist. For this reason, in this study we decided screening mutations in VPS35 (p.D620N; p.R524W), EIF4G1 (p.R1205H; p.A502V) and LRRK2 (p.G2019S) genes in a cohort of 582 unrelated Brazilian patients with PD and 329 healthy individuals control. In additional, we carried on the first case-control study to analyze LRRK2 exonic rare (p.Q1111H, p.T1410M, p.M1646T, p.S1761R, p.Y2189C) and common (p.N551K, p.R1398H, p.K1423K) variants in a subgroup of 329 unrelated Brazilian patients with PD from Southeastern region. This group was analyzed and compared to 222 healthy individuals control in order to verify associations between these variants and PD. Regarding mutations of VPS35 and EIF4G1 genes, we have not found any alteration in Brazilian patients with PD. The mutation p.G2019S in LRRK2 gene was found in 15 probands (2.6%), 9 of them are female (64,3%). Resting tremor was observed in 47,36% of p.G2019S patients as the predominant initial symptom. Regarding the LRRK2 rare variants, the results showed no significant association. Among LRRK2 common variants, the p.K1423K showed evidence of risk association with PD (p<0,05) in the stratified analysis concerning the group of patients with family history of the disease, in contrast, p.N551K and p.R1398H variants showed no associations. The analysis of p.N551K-p.R1398H-p.K1423K revealed protection in Southeastern group and Rio de Janeiro stratification (p<0,05). This haplotype is not in disequilibrium linkage in 222 Brazilian healthy individuals control analyzed (r2&#8804;45). Results obtained in this research represent valuable contributions for the understanding of association between the genetic variants studied and the risk of developing PD, particularly with regard to the associated endophenotypes.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / A doença de Parkinson (DP) é a segunda doença neurodegenerativa mais frequente no mundo, afetando 1-2% da população acima de 65 anos, caracterizada clinicamente por tremor em repouso, bradicinesia, instabilidade postural e rigidez muscular. Essas manifestações surgem devido à degeneração neuronal progressiva e à presença de inclusões proteicas ricas em &#945;-sinucleína. A DP é decorrente da interação entre fatores ambientais e genéticos, e entre os fatores genéticos, variantes exônicas de transmissão dominante nos genes LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2), VPS35 (vacuolar protein sorting 35) e EIF4G1 (eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4-gamma 1) têm sido associadas à etiologia da doença. Entretanto, estudos sobre o efeito dessas variantes na população brasileira são raros ou inexistentes. Por essa razão, neste trabalho rastreamos mutações nos genes VPS35 (p.D620N; p.R524W), EIF4G1 (p.R1205H; p.A502V) e LRRK2 (p.G2019S) em uma amostra de 582 pacientes brasileiros com DP não aparentados e 329 indivíduos controles saudáveis. Além disso, conduzimos o primeiro estudo caso-controle para análise de variantes exônicas raras (p.Q1111H, p.T1410M, p.M1646T, p.S1761R, p.Y2189C) e comuns (p.N551K, p.R1398H, p.K1423K) no gene LRRK2 em um subgrupo de 329 pacientes brasileiros com DP, não aparentados, naturais da região sudeste. Esse subgrupo foi analisado e comparado com 222 indivíduos controles saudáveis a fim de verificar associações dessas variantes e a DP. Em relação às mutações dos genes VPS35 e EIF4G1, não foram encontradas alterações nos pacientes com DP. A mutação p.G2019S no gene LRRK2 foi encontrada em 15 probandos (2,6%), dos quais 9 são do sexo feminino (64,3%). O tremor em repouso foi observado em 47,36% dos pacientes com a mutação p.G2019S como primeiro sintoma motor. As análises das variantes raras no gene LRRK2 não revelaram qualquer associação estatisticamente significante. Entre as variantes comuns, a p.K1423K mostrou evidência de associação de risco com a DP (p<0,05) na estratificação contendo o grupo de indivíduos com história familiar da doença e para as variantes p.N551K e p.R1398H não foram observadas associações. A análise do haplótipo p.N551K-p.R1398H-p.K1423K revelou associação de proteção na amostra sudeste e na estratificação Rio de Janeiro (p<0,05). Esse haplótipo não está em desequilíbrio de ligação na amostra de 222 indivíduos controles brasileiros analisados (r2&#8804;45). Os resultados obtidos neste estudo representam contribuições valiosas ao entendimento da relação entre as variantes genéticas estudadas e o risco de desenvolvimento da doença de Parkinson, principalmente no que se refere aos endofenótipos associados. / Parkinsons disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder in the world, affecting 1-2% of population more than 65 years of age, clinically recognized by resting tremor, bradykinesia, postural instability and rigidity. These manifestations occur due to progressive neuronal degeneration and to the presence of protein inclusions enriched with &#945;-synuclein. PD results from the interaction between environmental and genetic factors, and, among genetic factors, dominant exonic variants in LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2), VPS35 (vacuolar protein sorting 35) e EIF4G1 (eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4-gamma 1) genes have been described as causes of the disease. However, studies of the effect of these variants in Brazilian population are rare or do not exist. For this reason, in this study we decided screening mutations in VPS35 (p.D620N; p.R524W), EIF4G1 (p.R1205H; p.A502V) and LRRK2 (p.G2019S) genes in a cohort of 582 unrelated Brazilian patients with PD and 329 healthy individuals control. In additional, we carried on the first case-control study to analyze LRRK2 exonic rare (p.Q1111H, p.T1410M, p.M1646T, p.S1761R, p.Y2189C) and common (p.N551K, p.R1398H, p.K1423K) variants in a subgroup of 329 unrelated Brazilian patients with PD from Southeastern region. This group was analyzed and compared to 222 healthy individuals control in order to verify associations between these variants and PD. Regarding mutations of VPS35 and EIF4G1 genes, we have not found any alteration in Brazilian patients with PD. The mutation p.G2019S in LRRK2 gene was found in 15 probands (2.6%), 9 of them are female (64,3%). Resting tremor was observed in 47,36% of p.G2019S patients as the predominant initial symptom. Regarding the LRRK2 rare variants, the results showed no significant association. Among LRRK2 common variants, the p.K1423K showed evidence of risk association with PD (p<0,05) in the stratified analysis concerning the group of patients with family history of the disease, in contrast, p.N551K and p.R1398H variants showed no associations. The analysis of p.N551K-p.R1398H-p.K1423K revealed protection in Southeastern group and Rio de Janeiro stratification (p<0,05). This haplotype is not in disequilibrium linkage in 222 Brazilian healthy individuals control analyzed (r2&#8804;45). Results obtained in this research represent valuable contributions for the understanding of association between the genetic variants studied and the risk of developing PD, particularly with regard to the associated endophenotypes.

Les protéines alpha-synucléine (α-syn) et leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) sont deux protéines ayant un rôle majeur dans la physiopathologie de la maladie de Parkinson (MP) et interviennent aussi bien dans les formes dites sporadiques que dans les formes familiales. La mutation G2019S du gène codant pour LRRK2 est la mutation la plus fréquente. Cette mutation induit une augmentation de l’activité kinase de LRRK2 qui conduit à sa toxicité. Plusieurs hypothèses convergent vers l’idée que LRRK2 et l’α-syn interagiraient pour conduire à la dysfonction et/ou la mort des neurones dopaminergiques (DA) de la substance noire (SNc) dans la MP. Dans la première partie de cette étude, différentes formes sauvage (WT) ou mutée (G2019S) de LRRK2 ont été surexprimées spécifiquement dans les neurones de la SNc via l’utilisation de vecteurs lentiviraux (LV) et adéno-viraux associés (AAV). La question principale de cette étude était d’évaluer si l’expression spécifiquement neuronale de LRRK2 induisait la dégénérescence des neurones DA de la SNc. Nous avons généré des constructions comportant uniquement la partie C-terminale de LRRK2 (ΔLRRK2) en aval du domaine LRR. In vitro, le fragment ΔLRRK2G2019S présente une activité kinase supérieure au fragment ΔLRRK2WT avec une augmentation d’activité comparable à la forme entière de LRRK2. In vivo, six mois après l’injection (PI) de ΔLRRK2 WT ou G2019S dans la SNc, les mesures du nombre de neurones montrent que seul le fragment ΔLRRK2G2019S induit une mort neuronale significative (30%) comparé à la forme ΔLRRK2WT, uniquement lorsque l’expression est générée via des vecteurs AAV. Ces résultats suggèrent que l’expression purement neuronale d’un fragment contenant le domaine kinase de LRRK2 est suffisante pour induire une dégénérescence de la SN. Dans la seconde partie du projet, nous avons étudié l’hypothèse que ΔLRRK2G2019S via son activité kinase amplifiée, pourrait augmenter la toxicité le l’α-syn mutée A53T. Pour répondre à cette question, les vecteurs AAV codant pour ΔLRRK2 G2019S ou une forme inactive de la kinase (ΔLRRK2G2019S/D1994A), et celui codant pour l’α-syn A53T ont été co-injectés dans la SNc. Les analyses réalisées à 6 et 15 semaines PI montrent que ΔLRRK2G2019S augmente la mort neuronale induite par l’α-syn A53T d’une manière kinase dépendante. Tous ces résultats supportent l’hypothèse que l’existence d’une interaction fonctionnelle entre LRRK2 et l’α-syn pourrait jouer un rôle fondamental dans la physiopathologie de la MP offrant des possibilités de stratégie de neuroprotection ciblant l’interaction LRRK2/α-syn. / Alpha-synuclein (α-syn) and leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) proteins are likely to play crucial roles both in sporadic and familial forms of Parkinson’s disease (PD). The most prevalent mutation in LRRK2 is the G2019S substitution which induces neurotoxicity through a marked increase of its kinase activity. A possible interplay between LRRK2 and α-syn may be involved in the dysfunction and/or in the death of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra (SNc) in PD. In the first part of the study, we evaluated whether the overexpression of LRRK2G2019S using lentiviral vectors (LVs) and adeno-associated virus (AAV2/9), which can overexpress transgenes selectively in neurons could trigger neurodegeneration in the SNc, in other words, whether cell-autonomous mechanisms are sufficient to trigger the degeneration of DA neurons. We generated constructs corresponding to the C-terminal domain of LRRK2 (ΔLRRK2) containing the kinase domain. Results of assays performed in vitro indicated that ΔLRRK2 retains biochemical properties of full length LRRK2. Six months after the stereotaxic injection of LV-ΔLRRK2G2019S in the SNc, the number of DA neurons was unchanged, however, the infection of the SNc with AAV-ΔLRRK2G2019S but not with AAV-ΔLRRK2WT induced a significant ~30% loss of DA neurons. These results suggested that neuronal overexpression of the mutant kinase domain of LRRK2 was sufficient to trigger neurodegeneration in the SNc in the adult brain. In the second part of the study, we aimed at studying whether ΔLRRK2G2019S could increase the neurotoxicity of a mutant form of α-syn (A53T mutation) in vivo in DA neurons. We used a co-infection approach with AAV vectors encoding the α-synA53T, and ΔLRRK2 G2019S alone or with the D1994A mutation (ΔLRRK2G2019S/D1994A) that inactivates the kinase activity of LRRK2. AAVs were stereotaxically co-injected into the rat SNc and histological evaluation was performed at 6 and 15 weeks (early and late time points) post-infection. Results showed that ΔLRRK2G2019S increased the toxicity of α-synA53T in a kinase-dependent manner. Altogether, the present study supports the hypothesis that a functional interaction between LRRK2 and α-syn may play a key role in PD pathogenesis. The new “double hit” model we developed in rats may be of interest to test novel neuroprotective strategies targeting LRRK2/α-syn in vivo.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Parkinsons disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimers disease, affecting nearly 1% of people above 65 years of age. The major clinical symptoms of this disease are: resting tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity, postural instability and a positive response to dopamine replacement therapy. Pathological findings include selective degeneration of dopaminergic neurons within the substantia nigra, with proteinaceous Lewy body inclusions in surviving cells. The pathogenesis of PD is not yet completely understood, however, both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the disease phenotype. Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 gene (LRRK2; OMIM 609007) represent the most frequent genetic known cause of familial and sporadic PD. The LRRK2 gene encodes a protein, member of the ROCO protein family, that contains both GTPase (ROC) domain and kinase (MAPKKK) domain, as well as, other motifs. In this study, we have screened the main domains of the LRRK2 in a group of 204 PD Brazilian patients. The screening was performed by direct sequencing of the PCR products. By the analysis of 14 exons corresponding to ROC, COR and MAPKKK domains, we identified 31 sequence variations. The novel variants, p.C1770R and p.C2139S, may play a role in the PD pathogenesis. Three exonic alterations (p.R1398R, p.T1410M and p.Y2189C) and nine intronic variants (c.4317+16C>T, c.5317+59A>C, c.5509+20A>C, c.5509+52T>C, c.5509+122A>G, c.5657-46C>T, c.6382-36G>A, c.6382-37C>T and c.6576+44T>C) seem to be not pathogenic. A total of 17 exonic and intronic alterations were previously described in the literature as non-pathogenic polymorphisms (p.R1398H, p.K1423K, p.R1514Q, p.P1542S, c.4828-31T>C, p.G1624G, p.K1637K, p.M1646T, p.S1647T, c.5015+32A>G, c.5170+23T>A, c.5317+32C>T, p.G1819G, c.5948+48C>T, p.N2081D, p.E2108E and c.6381+30A>G). The frequency of pathogenic mutations or potentially pathogenic variants was 3.4% (including the p.G2019S mutation, previously described in our previous report: Pimentel et al., 2008; Abdalla-Carvalho et al., 2010). In familial cases (11.1%) this frequency was approximately six times higher than in sporadic cases (1.8%). Our results suggest that LRRK2 mutations have an important contribution to PD development among Brazilian population. / A doença de Parkinson (DP) é a segunda doença neurodegenerativa mais frequente depois da Doença de Alzheimer, afetando aproximadamente 1% da população com idade superior a 65 anos. Clinicamente, esta doença caracteriza-se pela presença de tremor em repouso, bradicinesia, rigidez muscular e instabilidade postural, os quais podem ser controlados com a administração do levodopa. As características patológicas da DP incluem a despigmentação da substância nigra devido à perda dos neurônios dopaminérgicos e a presença de inclusões proteicas denominadas corpos de Lewy nos neurônios sobreviventes. As vias moleculares envolvidas com esta patologia ainda são obscuras, porém a DP é uma doença complexa, resultante da interação entre fatores ambientais e causas genéticas. Mutações no gene leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2; OMIM 609007) constituem a forma mais comum de DP. Este gene codifica uma proteína, membro da família de proteínas ROCO, que possui, entre outros domínios, dois domínios funcionais GTPase (ROC) e quinase (MAPKKK). Neste estudo, os principais domínios do gene LRRK2 foram analisados em 204 pacientes brasileiros com DP por meio de sequenciamento dos produtos da PCR. Através da análise de 14 exons correspondentes aos domínios ROC, COR e MAPKKK foram identificadas 31 variantes. As alterações novas, p.C1770R e p.C2139S, possuem um potencial papel na etiologia da DP. Três alterações exônicas (p.R1398R, p.T1410M e p.Y2189C) e nove intrônicas (c.4317+16C>T, c.5317+59A>C, c.5509+20A>C, c.5509+52T>C, c.5509+122A>G, c.5657-46C>T, c.6382-36G>A, c.6382-37C>T e c.6576+44T>C) são potencialmente não patogênicas. Ao todo, dezessete variantes exônicas e intrônicas constituem polimorfismos já relatados na literatura (p.R1398H, p.K1423K, p.R1514Q, p.P1542S, c.4828-31T>C, p.G1624G, p.K1637K, p.M1646T, p.S1647T, c.5015+32A>G, c.5170+23T>A, c.5317+32C>T, p.G1819G, c.5948+48C>T, p.N2081D, p.E2108E e c.6381+30A>G). A frequência total de alterações potencialmente patogênicas ou patogênicas detectadas em nossa amostra foi de 3,4% (incluindo a mutação p.G2019S, anteriormente descrita em 2 artigos publicados por nosso grupo: Pimentel et al., 2008; Abdalla-Carvalho et al., 2010), sendo a frequência de mutações nos casos familiares (11,1%) cerca de seis vezes maior do que a encontrada nos casos isolados da DP (1,8%). Os resultados alcançados neste estudo revelam que mutações no gene LRRK2 desempenham um papel significativo como fator genético para o desenvolvimento da DP em pacientes brasileiros.

Autophagy is compromised in Parkinson’s disease (PD) with a number of PD-associated genetic mutations leading to its dysregulation. Leucine-rich repeat kinase (LRRK2) mutations, causative of PD, aberrantly enhance autophagy. Our lab elucidated a LRRK2 gene regulatory network identifying transcripts showing coordinated expression level changes associated with PD. Histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) was found to be an important interactor with LRRK2, regulating many of the same transcripts. The majority of these transcripts associate with autophagy and the lysosomal complex. I hypothesized that LRRK2 interacts with HDAC6 to regulate autophagy. Silencing of HDAC6 in SH-SY5Y normalized the autophagosomal size altered by expression of PD-linked LRRK2 mutants. This work identified a key role for HDAC6 in mediating the autophagic dysfunction induced by the mutant LRRK2. In addition to autophagy, stress granule (SG) formation has emerged as a compelling mechanism in the pathogenesis of PD. RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), such as T-cell intracellular antigen-1 (TIA-1), are major component of SGs. I observed TIA-1 translocating from the nucleus to the cytoplasm in PD cortex without forming SGs. Hu antigen D (HuD) also showed changes, with the RBP more present in the cytoplasm than the nucleus in PD with no SGs observed. These preliminary studies lead to the hypothesis that low levels of SGs result from an inhibition by alpha-synuclein (syn), or hyperactive autophagy. For that purpose, brain tissues from a mouse model of PD (A53T-syn transgenic mouse) were examined by immunohistochemistry. There was no difference in TIA-1 expression in control and A53T-syn expressing mouse brains, or SG formation in primary neurons after treatment with recombinant A53T fibrils. To determine whether the lack of SGs in PD brain was due to activation of autophagy, BE-M17 cells were treated with rapamycin, an autophagy activator, which decreased SGs by 50%. Overexpression of TIA-1 in BE-M17 cells under arsenite treatment also increased autophagosomal size by 50%, indicating co-regulation of SGs and autophagy. My work indicates that the pathophysiology of PD is associated with a loss of SGs due to elevated activity of autophagy, presumably due to PD-linked LRRK2 mutations. This co-regulatory network may be a potential therapeutic target of PD.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Parkinsons disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimers disease, affecting nearly 1% of people above 65 years of age. The major clinical symptoms of this disease are: resting tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity, postural instability and a positive response to dopamine replacement therapy. Pathological findings include selective degeneration of dopaminergic neurons within the substantia nigra, with proteinaceous Lewy body inclusions in surviving cells. The pathogenesis of PD is not yet completely understood, however, both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the disease phenotype. Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 gene (LRRK2; OMIM 609007) represent the most frequent genetic known cause of familial and sporadic PD. The LRRK2 gene encodes a protein, member of the ROCO protein family, that contains both GTPase (ROC) domain and kinase (MAPKKK) domain, as well as, other motifs. In this study, we have screened the main domains of the LRRK2 in a group of 204 PD Brazilian patients. The screening was performed by direct sequencing of the PCR products. By the analysis of 14 exons corresponding to ROC, COR and MAPKKK domains, we identified 31 sequence variations. The novel variants, p.C1770R and p.C2139S, may play a role in the PD pathogenesis. Three exonic alterations (p.R1398R, p.T1410M and p.Y2189C) and nine intronic variants (c.4317+16C>T, c.5317+59A>C, c.5509+20A>C, c.5509+52T>C, c.5509+122A>G, c.5657-46C>T, c.6382-36G>A, c.6382-37C>T and c.6576+44T>C) seem to be not pathogenic. A total of 17 exonic and intronic alterations were previously described in the literature as non-pathogenic polymorphisms (p.R1398H, p.K1423K, p.R1514Q, p.P1542S, c.4828-31T>C, p.G1624G, p.K1637K, p.M1646T, p.S1647T, c.5015+32A>G, c.5170+23T>A, c.5317+32C>T, p.G1819G, c.5948+48C>T, p.N2081D, p.E2108E and c.6381+30A>G). The frequency of pathogenic mutations or potentially pathogenic variants was 3.4% (including the p.G2019S mutation, previously described in our previous report: Pimentel et al., 2008; Abdalla-Carvalho et al., 2010). In familial cases (11.1%) this frequency was approximately six times higher than in sporadic cases (1.8%). Our results suggest that LRRK2 mutations have an important contribution to PD development among Brazilian population. / A doença de Parkinson (DP) é a segunda doença neurodegenerativa mais frequente depois da Doença de Alzheimer, afetando aproximadamente 1% da população com idade superior a 65 anos. Clinicamente, esta doença caracteriza-se pela presença de tremor em repouso, bradicinesia, rigidez muscular e instabilidade postural, os quais podem ser controlados com a administração do levodopa. As características patológicas da DP incluem a despigmentação da substância nigra devido à perda dos neurônios dopaminérgicos e a presença de inclusões proteicas denominadas corpos de Lewy nos neurônios sobreviventes. As vias moleculares envolvidas com esta patologia ainda são obscuras, porém a DP é uma doença complexa, resultante da interação entre fatores ambientais e causas genéticas. Mutações no gene leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2; OMIM 609007) constituem a forma mais comum de DP. Este gene codifica uma proteína, membro da família de proteínas ROCO, que possui, entre outros domínios, dois domínios funcionais GTPase (ROC) e quinase (MAPKKK). Neste estudo, os principais domínios do gene LRRK2 foram analisados em 204 pacientes brasileiros com DP por meio de sequenciamento dos produtos da PCR. Através da análise de 14 exons correspondentes aos domínios ROC, COR e MAPKKK foram identificadas 31 variantes. As alterações novas, p.C1770R e p.C2139S, possuem um potencial papel na etiologia da DP. Três alterações exônicas (p.R1398R, p.T1410M e p.Y2189C) e nove intrônicas (c.4317+16C>T, c.5317+59A>C, c.5509+20A>C, c.5509+52T>C, c.5509+122A>G, c.5657-46C>T, c.6382-36G>A, c.6382-37C>T e c.6576+44T>C) são potencialmente não patogênicas. Ao todo, dezessete variantes exônicas e intrônicas constituem polimorfismos já relatados na literatura (p.R1398H, p.K1423K, p.R1514Q, p.P1542S, c.4828-31T>C, p.G1624G, p.K1637K, p.M1646T, p.S1647T, c.5015+32A>G, c.5170+23T>A, c.5317+32C>T, p.G1819G, c.5948+48C>T, p.N2081D, p.E2108E e c.6381+30A>G). A frequência total de alterações potencialmente patogênicas ou patogênicas detectadas em nossa amostra foi de 3,4% (incluindo a mutação p.G2019S, anteriormente descrita em 2 artigos publicados por nosso grupo: Pimentel et al., 2008; Abdalla-Carvalho et al., 2010), sendo a frequência de mutações nos casos familiares (11,1%) cerca de seis vezes maior do que a encontrada nos casos isolados da DP (1,8%). Os resultados alcançados neste estudo revelam que mutações no gene LRRK2 desempenham um papel significativo como fator genético para o desenvolvimento da DP em pacientes brasileiros.