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No / In this paper, a new three-dimensional spline finite strip method (spline FSM) is introduced. This is done by combining the classical spline finite strip method [1] and the state space approach. According to the traditional spline FSM, a laminated plate is divided into strips. Within each strip, the spline FSM calls for the use of simple polynomials and a continuously differentiable spline function, respectively, in the transverse and in-plane directions. In the through-thickness direction, the state space method is used to compute the distribution of displacements and stresses. The combination of the in-plane spline FSM and the out-of-plane state space formulations results in a global state space equation that is solved numerically by the precise time step integration method [2,3]. Apart from obtaining a three-dimensional solution, the new method has a unique feature that the final algebra equation system is independent of the number of material layers of a laminate. The main aim of this work is to establish the new solution procedure and validate the method. To this end, the work reported in the paper focus on laminated plates with arbitrary boundary conditions. Thus, the spline FSM is more flexible than the FSM in imposing boundary conditions. Future development is expected to extend the solution to more practical applications. From the numerical validation included, it can be seen clearly that the newly developed method can provide accurate three dimensional solutions for laminated composites, particularly, with continuous transverse stress distributions across material interfaces. This is normally difficult to obtain if a traditional three dimensional finite element is used, where only continuity of displacements across material boundaries are guaranteed. Apart from the above new feature, the new three-dimensional formulation always ends up with a global matrix whose dimension depends only on the number of strips and knots that a plate has been divided into, and is completely independent of the number of material layers of the plate.

This paper presents a semianalytical method for the prediction of interlaminar stresses and displacements near the free edges and ply cracks in general angle-ply laminates subjected to biaxial extensions and/or in plane shear deformation. The method is based on a state space representation of the three-dimensional equations of elasticity. Numerical solutions are obtained by using layer refinement in the through thickness direction and Fourier series expansion in the other directions. By this approach, an angle-ply laminate may be composed of an arbitrary number of monoclinic layers and each layer may have different material property and thickness. This method guarantees continuous fields of all interlaminar stresses across interfaces between material layers. Numerical results are compared with those obtained from other methods. It is found that the theory provides a satisfactory approximation to the stress singularities near the free edges and ply cracks. Numerical solutions for antisymmetric laminates under extension and general laminates under shearing are new in the literature and can be used as benchmarks for validating new models.

Guadua angustifolia Kunth (Guadua) is a bamboo species native to South and Central America that has been widely used for structural applications in small and large-scale buildings, bridges and temporary structures. Currently, its structural use is regulated within seismic resistant building codes in countries such as Peru and Colombia. Nevertheless, Guadua remains a material for vernacular construction associated with high levels of manual labour and structural unpredictability. Guadua buildings are limited to two storeys due to the overall flexibility of the slender and hollow culms and its connection systems. Its axial specific stiffness is comparable to that of steel and hardwoods, but unlike wood, Guadua’s hollow structure and lack of ray cells render it prone to buckling along the grain and to transverse crushing. As a result, Guadua’s mainstream use in construction and transformation into standard sizes or engineered Guadua products is scarce. Therefore, this work focussed on the development of standardised flat industrial structural products from Guadua devising replicable manufacturing technologies and engineering methods to measure and predict their mechanical behaviour. Cross-laminated Guadua panels were developed using thermohydro-mechanically modified and laminated flat Guadua strips glued with a high performance resin. Guadua was subjected to thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) treatments that modified its microstructure and mechanical properties. THM treatment was applied to Guadua with the aim of tackling the difficulties in the fabrication of standardised construction materials and to gain a uniform fibre content profile that facilitated prediction of mechanical properties for structural design. Densified homogenous flat Guadua strips (FGS) were obtained. Elastic properties of FGS were determined in tension, compression and shear using small-clear specimens. These properties were used to predict the structural behaviour of G-XLam panels comprised of three and five layers (G-XLam3 and G-XLam5) by numerical methods. The panels were assumed as multi-layered systems composed of contiguous lamellas with orthotropic axes orientated at 0º and 90º. A finite element (FE) model was developed, and successfully simulated the response of G-XLam3 & 5 panels virtually loaded with the same boundary conditions as the following experimental tests on full-scale panels. G-XLam3 and G-XLam5 were manufactured and their mechanical properties evaluated by testing large specimens in compression, shear and bending. Results from numerical, FE predictions and mechanical testing demonstrated comparable results. Finally, design and manufacturing aspects of the G-XLam panels were discussed and examples of their architectural and structural use in construction applications such as mid-rise buildings, grid shells and vaults are presented. Overall, this research studies THM treatments applied to Guadua in order to produce standardised engineered Guadua products (EGP), and provides guidelines for manufacturing, testing, and for the structural analysis and design with G-XLam panels. These factors are of key importance for the use of Guadua as a mainstream material in construction.

An asymptotically-exact methodology is presented for obtaining the cross-sectional stiffness matrix of a pre-twisted, moderately-thick beam having rectangular cross sections and made of transversely isotropic material. The beam is modelled with-out assumptions from 3-D elasticity. The strain energy of the beam is computed making use of the constitutive law and the kinematical relations derived with the inclusion of geometrical nonlinearities and initial twist. Large displacements and rotations are allowed, but small strain is assumed. The Variational Asymptotic Method (VAM) is used to minimize the energy functional, thereby reducing the cross section to a point on the reference line with appropriate properties, yielding a 1-D constitutive law. In this method as applied herein, the 2-D cross-sectional analysis is performed asymptotically by taking advantage of a material small parameter and two geometric small parameters. 3-D strain components are derived using kinematics and arranged as orders of the small parameters. Warping functions are obtained by the minimisation of strain energy subject to certain set of constraints that renders the 1-D strain measures well-defined. Closed-form expressions are derived for the 3-D non-linear warping and stress fields. The model is capable of predicting interlaminar and transverse shear stresses accurately up to first order.

O emprego dos compósitos laminados como material estrutural vem crescendo nos últimos tempos, incentivado pela suas excelentes propriedades mecânicas e baixo peso. Em consenso com todo o esforço científico dedicado a essa área, o presente trabalho visa a implementação de uma ferramenta computacional capaz de otimizar estruturas complexas fabricadas com tais materiais. Para tanto são utilizados os Algoritmos Genéticos (AG) como método de otimização, construídos para tratar especificamente esses problemas. São incorporadas várias modificações à estrutura clássica, apresentadas em outros trabalhos encontrados na literatura, o que possibilita um incremento no desempenho do algoritmo. Paralelamente é desenvolvido um programa de análise estrutural, empregando o MEF, que dá suporte ao algoritmo de otimização e permite sua aplicação a casos envolvendo estruturas mais complexas que as suportadas pelas formulações matemáticas fechadas. Um elemento finito triangular plano para casca e placas é utilizado com modificações destinadas ao tratamento desses materiais não convencionais. Sua formulação permite a incorporação de não-linearidade geométrica à análise, que é efetivada pelo emprego do Método do Controle dos Deslocamentos Generalizados (MCDG) na solução do problema. Também são realizadas análises de flambagem das estruturas e de falha dos materiais, sendo a última baseada no critério de Tsai-Wu. O trabalho em conjunto dos dois elementos desenvolvidos possibilita abordagens bastante sofisticadas nas otimizações, o que é demonstrado nos exemplos de aplicação. Esses incluem a manipulação de uma gama de variáveis envolvidas em otimizações multiobjetivas, e otimização do comportamento pós-flambagem. / The use of laminated composite as a structural material has been growing, stimulated by their excellent mechanical properties and low weight. Following all the scientific effort dedicated to this area, the present work aims at implementing a computational tool capable of optimizing complex structures manufactured with these materials. For this reason Genetic Algorithms (GA) are used as the optimization method, constructed to deal specifically with these problems. Many modifications are introduced to the classical structures of GA, found in other works, making possible an improvement on the algorithm performance. At the same time, a structural analysis program is developed, based on the FEM to give support for the optimization algorithm allowing its application to more complex structures than these supported by closed mathematical formulations. A plate and shell flat triangular finite element is used with modifications in order to deals with these non conventional materials. A geometrically non linear analysis is supported by the element formulation and the problem solution is carried on using the Generalized Displacement Control Method (GDCM). Buckling and material failure analysis are also performed, the latter based on the Tsai-Wu criterion. The two developed topics working together allow very sophisticated considerations in the optimization process, as can be observed in the examples presented here. These examples include the manipulation of many variables involved multiobjective optimizations and postbuckling behavior optimization.

Original analytical theories are developed for partitioning mixed-mode fractures on rigid interfaces in laminated orthotropic double cantilever beams (DCBs) based on 2D elasticity by using some novel methods. Note that although the DCB represents a simplified case, it provides a deep understanding and predictive capability for real applications and does not restrict the analysis to a simple class of fracture problems. The developed theories are generally applicable to so-called 1D fracture consisting of opening (mode I) and shearing (mode II) action only with no tearing (mode III) action, for example, straight edge cracks, circular blisters in plates and shells, etc. A salient point of the methods is to first derive one loading condition that causes one pure fracture mode. It is conveniently called the first pure mode. Then, all other pure fracture modes can be determined by using this pure mode and the property of orthogonality between pure mode I modes and pure mode II modes. Finally, these 2D-elasticity-based pure modes are used to partition mixed-mode fractures into contributions from the mode I and mode II fracture modes by considering a mixed-mode fracture as the superposition of pure mode I and mode II fractures. The partition is made in terms of the energy release rate (ERR) or the stress intensity factor (SIF). An analytical partition theory is developed first for a DCB composed of two identical linear elastic layers. The first pure mode is obtained by introducing correction factors into the beam-theory-based mechanical conditions. The property of orthogonality is then used to determine all other pure modes in the absence of through-thickness-shear forces. To accommodate through-thickness shear forces, first two pure through-thickness-shear-force pure modes (one pure mode I and one pure mode II) are discovered by extending a Timoshenko beam partition theory. Partition of mixed-mode fractures under pure through-thickness shear forces is then achieved by using these two pure modes in conjunction with two thickness-ratio-dependent correction factors: (1) a shear correction factor, and (2) a pure-mode-II ERR correction factor. Both correction factors closely follow a normal distribution around a symmetric DCB geometry. The property of orthogonality between all pure mode I and all pure mode II fracture modes is then used to complete the mixed-mode fracture partition theory for a DCB with bending moments, axial forces and through-thickness shear forces. Fracture on bimaterial interfaces is an important consideration in the design and application of composite materials and structures. It has, however, proved an extremely challenging problem for many decades to obtain an analytical solution for the complex SIFs and the crack extension size-dependent ERRs, based on 2D elasticity. Such an analytical solution for a brittle interfacial crack between two dissimilar elastic layers is obtained in two stages. In the first stage the bimaterial DCB is under tip bending moments and axial forces and has a mismatch in Young s modulus; however, the Poisson s ratios of the top and bottom layers are the same. The solution is achieved by developing two types of pure fracture modes and two powerful mathematical techniques. The two types of pure fracture modes are a SIF-type and a load-type. The two mathematical techniques are a shifting technique and an orthogonal pure mode technique. In the second stage, the theory is extended to accommodate a Poisson s ratio mismatch. Equivalent material properties are derived for each layer, namely, an equivalent elastic modulus and an equivalent Poisson s ratio, such that both the total ERR and the bimaterial mismatch coefficient are maintained in an alternative equivalent case. Cases for which no analytical solution for the SIFs and ERRs currently exist can therefore be transformed into cases for which the analytical solution does exist. It is now possible to use a completely analytical 2D-elasticity-based theory to calculate the complex SIFs and crack extension size-dependent ERRs. The original partition theories presented have been validated by comparison with numerical simulations. Excellent agreement has been observed. Moreover, one partition theory is further extended to consider the blister test and the adhesion energy of mono- and multi-layered graphene membranes on a silicon oxide substrate. Use of the partition theory presented in this work allows the correct critical mode I and mode II adhesion energy to be obtained and all the experimentally observed behaviour is explained.

O emprego dos compósitos laminados como material estrutural vem crescendo nos últimos tempos, incentivado pela suas excelentes propriedades mecânicas e baixo peso. Em consenso com todo o esforço científico dedicado a essa área, o presente trabalho visa a implementação de uma ferramenta computacional capaz de otimizar estruturas complexas fabricadas com tais materiais. Para tanto são utilizados os Algoritmos Genéticos (AG) como método de otimização, construídos para tratar especificamente esses problemas. São incorporadas várias modificações à estrutura clássica, apresentadas em outros trabalhos encontrados na literatura, o que possibilita um incremento no desempenho do algoritmo. Paralelamente é desenvolvido um programa de análise estrutural, empregando o MEF, que dá suporte ao algoritmo de otimização e permite sua aplicação a casos envolvendo estruturas mais complexas que as suportadas pelas formulações matemáticas fechadas. Um elemento finito triangular plano para casca e placas é utilizado com modificações destinadas ao tratamento desses materiais não convencionais. Sua formulação permite a incorporação de não-linearidade geométrica à análise, que é efetivada pelo emprego do Método do Controle dos Deslocamentos Generalizados (MCDG) na solução do problema. Também são realizadas análises de flambagem das estruturas e de falha dos materiais, sendo a última baseada no critério de Tsai-Wu. O trabalho em conjunto dos dois elementos desenvolvidos possibilita abordagens bastante sofisticadas nas otimizações, o que é demonstrado nos exemplos de aplicação. Esses incluem a manipulação de uma gama de variáveis envolvidas em otimizações multiobjetivas, e otimização do comportamento pós-flambagem. / The use of laminated composite as a structural material has been growing, stimulated by their excellent mechanical properties and low weight. Following all the scientific effort dedicated to this area, the present work aims at implementing a computational tool capable of optimizing complex structures manufactured with these materials. For this reason Genetic Algorithms (GA) are used as the optimization method, constructed to deal specifically with these problems. Many modifications are introduced to the classical structures of GA, found in other works, making possible an improvement on the algorithm performance. At the same time, a structural analysis program is developed, based on the FEM to give support for the optimization algorithm allowing its application to more complex structures than these supported by closed mathematical formulations. A plate and shell flat triangular finite element is used with modifications in order to deals with these non conventional materials. A geometrically non linear analysis is supported by the element formulation and the problem solution is carried on using the Generalized Displacement Control Method (GDCM). Buckling and material failure analysis are also performed, the latter based on the Tsai-Wu criterion. The two developed topics working together allow very sophisticated considerations in the optimization process, as can be observed in the examples presented here. These examples include the manipulation of many variables involved multiobjective optimizations and postbuckling behavior optimization.

O emprego dos compósitos laminados como material estrutural vem crescendo nos últimos tempos, incentivado pela suas excelentes propriedades mecânicas e baixo peso. Em consenso com todo o esforço científico dedicado a essa área, o presente trabalho visa a implementação de uma ferramenta computacional capaz de otimizar estruturas complexas fabricadas com tais materiais. Para tanto são utilizados os Algoritmos Genéticos (AG) como método de otimização, construídos para tratar especificamente esses problemas. São incorporadas várias modificações à estrutura clássica, apresentadas em outros trabalhos encontrados na literatura, o que possibilita um incremento no desempenho do algoritmo. Paralelamente é desenvolvido um programa de análise estrutural, empregando o MEF, que dá suporte ao algoritmo de otimização e permite sua aplicação a casos envolvendo estruturas mais complexas que as suportadas pelas formulações matemáticas fechadas. Um elemento finito triangular plano para casca e placas é utilizado com modificações destinadas ao tratamento desses materiais não convencionais. Sua formulação permite a incorporação de não-linearidade geométrica à análise, que é efetivada pelo emprego do Método do Controle dos Deslocamentos Generalizados (MCDG) na solução do problema. Também são realizadas análises de flambagem das estruturas e de falha dos materiais, sendo a última baseada no critério de Tsai-Wu. O trabalho em conjunto dos dois elementos desenvolvidos possibilita abordagens bastante sofisticadas nas otimizações, o que é demonstrado nos exemplos de aplicação. Esses incluem a manipulação de uma gama de variáveis envolvidas em otimizações multiobjetivas, e otimização do comportamento pós-flambagem. / The use of laminated composite as a structural material has been growing, stimulated by their excellent mechanical properties and low weight. Following all the scientific effort dedicated to this area, the present work aims at implementing a computational tool capable of optimizing complex structures manufactured with these materials. For this reason Genetic Algorithms (GA) are used as the optimization method, constructed to deal specifically with these problems. Many modifications are introduced to the classical structures of GA, found in other works, making possible an improvement on the algorithm performance. At the same time, a structural analysis program is developed, based on the FEM to give support for the optimization algorithm allowing its application to more complex structures than these supported by closed mathematical formulations. A plate and shell flat triangular finite element is used with modifications in order to deals with these non conventional materials. A geometrically non linear analysis is supported by the element formulation and the problem solution is carried on using the Generalized Displacement Control Method (GDCM). Buckling and material failure analysis are also performed, the latter based on the Tsai-Wu criterion. The two developed topics working together allow very sophisticated considerations in the optimization process, as can be observed in the examples presented here. These examples include the manipulation of many variables involved multiobjective optimizations and postbuckling behavior optimization.

Woven glass composites have been used for many years in commercial applications due to their light weight, competitive price and good engineering properties. Absorption of energy by laminated composite material results in damage in various forms, the most common of which is delamination. Inter-laminar fracture causes the layers of composite to separate, resulting in a reduction in stiffness and strength of the composite structure, matrix cracking and in some cases fibre breakage takes place. The aim of this project was to improve the inter-laminar bond strength between woven glass fabric and resin. Air jet texturing was selected to provide a small amount of bulk to the glass yarn. The purpose was to provide more surface contact between the fibres and resin and also to increase the adhesion between the neighbouring layers. These were expected to enhance the resistance to delamination in the woven glass composites.Glass yarns were textured by a Stähle air jet texturing machine. Core-and-effect yarn was produced instead of a simple air textured yarn. Hand loom and vacuum bagging techniques were used for making the fabric and composite panels from both textured and non-textured yarns. Density and fibre volume content were established for physical characterisation. Breaking strength (tenacity) of the yarns and tensile, flexure, inter-laminar shear strength (ILSS) and fracture toughness (mode 1) properties of the composites were determined. Projection microscopy and SEM imaging techniques were used to assess the fractured surfaces of the composite specimens. The yarn tenacity and the tensile properties of the composites were significantly reduced after the texturing process, whereas flexure properties were unchanged. However, significant improvement was observed in the ILSS and fracture toughness of the composites after the texturing process. It was also observed that the composites made from the fabrics with textured yarns in only the weft direction are the most advantageous as they maintained the tensile and flexure properties but have significantly higher inter-laminar shear strength.