This study sought to critically investigate the contribution of the ordinary people in the creation of a language policy and its subsequent implementation in Zimbabwe. The study was prompted by the realisation of the near-absence of a coherent language policy framework in Zimbabwe. The language policy situation in Zimbabwe is not clearly stated. A hotch-potch of statutes support the status, creation and implementation of languages that are spoken by the citizens of the country. The country’s supreme law, the constitution is silent about the necessity of a broad-based language policy in Zimbabwe. Only three languages Shona, Ndebele and English are considered to be major in a country with 16 known languages. This situation does not support the development of languages particularly the indigenous languages. Indigenous languages are not considered as a suitable medium of instruction from the third year of primary schooling up to tertiary level. Indigenous languages play a critical role in culture, economics and politics. The study argued that ordinary people have creative ways of contributing to the development of a language policy because these people are constantly creating new words and vocabulary that they implement in their day to day struggle with nature and other social classes. Authorities in Zimbabwe are yet to view the role of indigenous languages in development as a cornerstone of socio-economic and political progress. African languages, particularly the Shona language that was the main unit of analysis in this study revealed its capacity to handle complex ideas. It was recommended that when Shona and other indigenous languages are accorded the status of official languages of the country and then provided with the financial resources and linguistic expertise to develop them then, a coherent language policy can become a living reality in Zimbabwe. / Africam Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)

This study sought to critically investigate the contribution of the ordinary people in the creation of a language policy and its subsequent implementation in Zimbabwe. The study was prompted by the realisation of the near-absence of a coherent language policy framework in Zimbabwe. The language policy situation in Zimbabwe is not clearly stated. A hotch-potch of statutes support the status, creation and implementation of languages that are spoken by the citizens of the country. The country’s supreme law, the constitution is silent about the necessity of a broad-based language policy in Zimbabwe. Only three languages Shona, Ndebele and English are considered to be major in a country with 16 known languages. This situation does not support the development of languages particularly the indigenous languages. Indigenous languages are not considered as a suitable medium of instruction from the third year of primary schooling up to tertiary level. Indigenous languages play a critical role in culture, economics and politics. The study argued that ordinary people have creative ways of contributing to the development of a language policy because these people are constantly creating new words and vocabulary that they implement in their day to day struggle with nature and other social classes. Authorities in Zimbabwe are yet to view the role of indigenous languages in development as a cornerstone of socio-economic and political progress. African languages, particularly the Shona language that was the main unit of analysis in this study revealed its capacity to handle complex ideas. It was recommended that when Shona and other indigenous languages are accorded the status of official languages of the country and then provided with the financial resources and linguistic expertise to develop them then, a coherent language policy can become a living reality in Zimbabwe. / Africam Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)

The study interrogates the marginalisation of the Tonga language in the school curriculum of Zimbabwe. It explores the causes of marginalisation and what can be done by the Zimbabwean government to promote the Tonga language in the school curriculum at all levels in the education domain in Zimbabwe. In the study, the researcher uses a mixed method approach where qualitative and quantitative research techniques are used to corroborate data from different data gathering sources. The postmodernist theory is used in this research because of its encouragement of pluralism in society so as to enhance social cohesion. This is so because all languages are equal and they share the same functions and characteristics. There is no superior or inferior language in the eyes of the postmodernists. Participants for this study were drawn from district officials, selected primary and secondary school educators, primary and secondary school heads, all from Binga district of Zimbabwe and three university Tonga language lecturers, all purposefully selected. Focus group discussions, interviews, questionnaires, documents analysis and observations were used to collect data for this study. The data collected was then analysed using qualitative and quantitative analysis for triangulation purposes. The research established that the marginalisation of the Tonga language in Zimbabwe is caused by both exogenous and endogenous factors. The major factor is Zimbabwe‘s lack of a clear language policy exacerbated by attitudes of the different stakeholders which has also facilitated and enhanced the peripherisation of the Tonga language in Zimbabwe. The government of Zimbabwe has a tendency of declaring policies and not implementing them. Consequently, the government reacts to language problems as they arise. The study also reveals the importance of the Tonga language in the school curriculum in Zimbabwe. It also establishes that, for the Tonga language to be promoted there is need for the expeditious training of educators by the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development. There is need for the government of Zimbabwe to strengthen their language policy so that the status of Tonga is enhanced and uplifted. A strong language policy will compel different stakeholders to stick to their mandate thereby improving the place of the Tonga language in the school curriculum at all levels of the curriculum in Zimbabwe. / African Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)

The study sought to explore possibilities of using ChiShona as a medium of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics in primary schools. The aim was to compare the use of English as a medium of instruction with ChiShona as medium of instruction in the teaching and learning of Mathematics to Grade 4 class. The other objective was to examine the people’s attitudes towards the use of mother tongue instruction in the teaching and learning of Mathematics in Zimbabwe primary schools. A practical teaching experiment was used to investigate the feasibility of using ChiShona as medium of instruction in the teaching and learning of Mathematics to Grade 4 class. In addition a descriptive survey research design which used questionnaires and interviews as data collection methods was employed for its usefulness in exploratory studies. A total of 750 people participated in the research and these were 40 Grade 4 learners (used for teaching experiment) 260 teachers/lecturers, 250 parents and 200 college/university learners. Data gathered was subjected to both quantitative and qualitative analysis resulting in data triangulation for validation. Major findings of the research indicated that the use of ChiShona as a medium of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics to primary school children is possible and that the use of the mother tongue instruction (ChiShona) impacted positively in the teaching of Mathematics to Grade 4 learners. The use of ChiShona as a medium of instruction in teaching Mathematics was effective and comparatively the learners who used ChiShona performed better than those who used English as a medium of instruction. However the research further concluded that people preferred that English remain the only medium of instruction from primary up to university level as English offers them better opportunities for employment compared to ChiShona. The study concludes that the continued use of English as medium of instruction means that African languages such as ChiShona will remain underdeveloped and fail to find their way in the classrooms as languages of instruction in education. The study finally recommends the need for an all-inclusive multi-lingual policy that uplifts the status of indigenous languages and their literature without annihilating English. / D. Litt et Phil. (African Languages)

There is overwhelming evidence the world over on the pedagogical benefits of learning in the mother language. Zimbabwe recognized this significant role played by the mother tongue in education when a policy enshrined in the 1987 Education Act was enunciated. The language-in-education policy, which was amended in 2006, allows mother tongue usage up to Grade Seven. Contrary to the stated policy, primary school teachers continue to use English as the medium of instruction in primary schools. The purpose of this study was thus to explore the barriers that rural primary school teachers face in implementing the proposed policy in Masvingo District of Zimbabwe. Literature suggests that factors that inhibit implementation of a mother tongue education policy in ex-colonial African countries include state-related factors, uninformed language myths and language attitudes which support the dominant role of English. The postcolonial theory paradigm guided this study since the intention was to conduct the research as well as to contribute to how to generate teachers’ participation in mother tongue policy implementation in a postcolonial context. A qualitative case study was employed where semi-structured open ended questionnaires, focus group discussions and individual interviews were used to collect data. Fifteen rural primary school teachers, three school heads and two District Schools Inspectors were purposefully selected to participate in the study. It emerged from the study that all the participants were not knowledgeable about the stipulations of the 2006 language-in-education policy. The major barriers identified include inadequate policy dialogue, unavailability of educational material resources in the mother tongue, language attitudes and individual teacher concerns which contribute to low self-efficacy. A critical analysis of the barriers to implementation success indicates that they are mainly related to postcolonial mentality where language attitudes are deeply entrenched in people’s minds. Participants believed that the challenges they faced could be resolved and they proposed some intervention strategies. The study recommends that teacher education institutions should spearhead the designing of professional development modules that impart knowledge and skills on the implementation of additive bilingual education in primary schools. / Curriculum and Instructional Studies / D. Ed. (Didactics)

The Zimbabwean Education Act of 1987 stated that English was the official language of learning and teaching (LoLT) from grade four upwards. From grade three downwards, the mother tongue was to be used. That Education Act was later amended in 2006, to extend the use of the mother tongue up to grade seven. As a college lecturer, I have observed that there is tension between policy and practice. English and indigenous languages are vying for supremacy as the LoLT from as early as the Early Childhood Development (ECD) level. For the majority of these learners, English is a second language. This research aims to investigate problems emanating from the use of English as a second language (ESL) in learning and teaching Environmental Science (ES) at primary school level. Its objectives are to investigate the usefulness of the language policy currently in use in Zimbabwe as well as to investigate empirically, how grades four to seven teachers and their pupils communicate in class during ES lessons; and identify problems resulting from the use of ESL during ES lessons at primary school level and suggest solutions to these problems. I purposively chose ES because I developed interest in that subject when I taught it at college level where I observed many students teaching it for almost three decades. Most of the pupils these students taught struggled to communicate in ESL. My research was not intended to test existing theory. Therefore I chose an inductive (qualitative) approach. I adopted the phenomenological case study in which I collected data from the natural setting, namely: three purposively selected primary schools. I did my pilot study at the fourth school. I used four methods of data collection, namely: direct observation, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and document analysis. The participants were grades four to seven teachers and their pupils. Findings of this study show that pupils were not willing to participate in class oral discourse. When teachers asked questions, pupils usually gave one-word answers. Teachers and pupils spoke the same first language (L1). So, when they failed to express themselves coherently in English, they code-switched to their L1. When that happened, most of the pupils were eager to talk. They gave correct responses in their L1. Group discussions were very lively when they were held in the pupils’ L1. But when teachers instructed the pupils to discuss in English, many pupils were silenced because of their limited English proficiency (LEP). It was very evident that ESL was a barrier to the learning of ES for many learners. Pupils faced conceptual and communication problems because most of them were not yet proficient enough to use ESL effectively to learn ES. Participants welcomed code-switching to L1 as a solution to their limited English proficiency. / Educational Studies / D. Phil. (Education)

There is overwhelming evidence the world over on the pedagogical benefits of learning in the mother language. Zimbabwe recognized this significant role played by the mother tongue in education when a policy enshrined in the 1987 Education Act was enunciated. The language-in-education policy, which was amended in 2006, allows mother tongue usage up to Grade Seven. Contrary to the stated policy, primary school teachers continue to use English as the medium of instruction in primary schools. The purpose of this study was thus to explore the barriers that rural primary school teachers face in implementing the proposed policy in Masvingo District of Zimbabwe. Literature suggests that factors that inhibit implementation of a mother tongue education policy in ex-colonial African countries include state-related factors, uninformed language myths and language attitudes which support the dominant role of English. The postcolonial theory paradigm guided this study since the intention was to conduct the research as well as to contribute to how to generate teachers’ participation in mother tongue policy implementation in a postcolonial context. A qualitative case study was employed where semi-structured open ended questionnaires, focus group discussions and individual interviews were used to collect data. Fifteen rural primary school teachers, three school heads and two District Schools Inspectors were purposefully selected to participate in the study. It emerged from the study that all the participants were not knowledgeable about the stipulations of the 2006 language-in-education policy. The major barriers identified include inadequate policy dialogue, unavailability of educational material resources in the mother tongue, language attitudes and individual teacher concerns which contribute to low self-efficacy. A critical analysis of the barriers to implementation success indicates that they are mainly related to postcolonial mentality where language attitudes are deeply entrenched in people’s minds. Participants believed that the challenges they faced could be resolved and they proposed some intervention strategies. The study recommends that teacher education institutions should spearhead the designing of professional development modules that impart knowledge and skills on the implementation of additive bilingual education in primary schools. / Curriculum and Instructional Studies / D. Ed. (Didactics)

The study sought to investigate how the symbiotic relationship between amaXhosa and amaNdebele impacted on IsiXhosa language and amaXhosa culture in Mbembesi area in Zimbabwe. The study was conducted where two ethnic groups of amaXhosa and amaNdebele coexist. Language policies in the past have disadvantaged amaXhosa by treating the language as a minority language which led to its marginalisation at school and in public life. Dynamic Social Impact Theory was used to explain the concept of the evolution of language. Language contact, language change, and bilingualism are the main terms that were discussed in relation to what happened to the two languages of study. The case study was descriptive in nature. The participants were purposefully selected according to what the researcher desired to achieve. The data were collected through interviews with heads of schools in Mbembesi, teachers, elders and youths of the community. Document analysis was also employed when the Indigenous Languages syllabus and teachers’ schemes were observed. The pupils were given a topic on which to write a short composition in IsiXhosa and IsiNdebele to ascertain if indeed IsiNdebele had impacted on IsiXhosa. A comparison between IsiXhosa of Mbembesi and that of South Africa was made as a way of verifying if there has been a change from the original IsiXhosa that is spoken in South Africa. The two ethnic groups’ cultural activities were also studied as a way of investigating the level of impact in their way of life. After administering the research instruments, the findings revealed that there is a level of impact on IsiXhosa language and amaXhosa culture through their contact with amaNdebele. The terminology in the two languages has overlapped as well as their cultural lives. The Zimbabwean 2013 Constitution has tried to raise the status of IsiXhosa by making it officially recognised but it seems to be still functioning at community level as before. IsiXhosa is still not learned at school although it was introduced in 2013 in the two pilot schools but which discontinued in 2016 reverting to IsiNdebele citing lack of teaching and learning materials. The recommendations from the study include: that the teachers should be trained in IsiXhosa at institutions of higher learning; that amaXhosa educated personnel should spear-head the writing of teaching and learning materials and that the language should be used in public life so that its speakers maintain their identity. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / Ph. D. (Languages, Linguistics and Literature)