Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: An instrument, named solution crystallization analysis by laser light scattering (SCALLS), that measures the solution melting and crystallization of polymers in solution was developed further in this study. The instrument was tested in a theoretical study to evaluate the Flory-Huggins relationship of melting point depression in solution of copolymers. It was found that the solvent interaction parameter for propylene/higher 1-alkene copolymers, with low comonomer content is dependent on the comonomer type. It was also showed that the melting point depression is dependent on both the type and amount of comonomer included in the copolymer. The instrument was further developed to include a total of three lasers with different wavelengths. Initial problems with laser interference was rectified by the introduction of dichroic mirrors to direct the laser light to the relevant detectors and broad pass filters in front of the the detectors to ensure that only the relevant laser light passes through. For homogenous polypropylene samples it was found that even though a slower cooling rate increases the relative peak temperatures as well as the relative temperature differences between the peaks, detail in the peak profiles is the same for the faster cooling rate. The subsequent heating analysis does show that there is a definite dependence on the cooling rate. The ZNPP-4 sample shows that the appearance of a shoulder in the heating analysis becomes more defined as a peak if the preceding cooling analysis is slower. Complex impact-polypropylene samples, differing only in the amount of ethylene were analysed and even small differences between samples were detected. The possible application of the SCALLS instrument was investigated. It was proven that the instrument can be used as a screening method for prep-TREF to determine the fractionation temperatures. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'n Instrument, genoem oplossing kristallisasie-analise deur laser lig verstrooiing (SCALLS), wat die smeltpunt asook die kristallisasie temperatuur in oplossing kan meet is verder ontwikkel in hierdie studie. Die Flory-Huggins verhouding oor die smeltpunt depressie in oplossing van ko-polimere is ondersoek in ‘n teoretiese studie. Daar is bevind dat die oplossing interaksie parameter vir propileen/hoër 1-alkeen kopolimere, met lae ko-monomeer inhoud is afhanklik op die ko-monomeer tipe. Dit is ook getoon dat die smeltpunt depressie afhanklik is van beide die tipe en hoeveelheid ko-monomeer in die ko-polimeer. Die instrument is verder ontwikkel om 'n totaal van drie lasers met verskillende golflengtes in te sluit. Aanvanklike probleme met laser inmenging is reggestel deur die bekendstelling van dichromatiese spieëls wat die laser lig na die regte ooreenstemmende detektor rig en filters voor die detektors verseker dat net die relevante laser lig die detektor bereik. Vir homogene polipropileen monsters is dit bevind dat selfs al is die analises gedoen teen ‘n stadiger afkoelings tempo wat lei tot ‘n verhoging in die piek kristallisasie temperatuur asook die relatiewe temperatuur verskille tussen die lasers, bly die detail in die piek profiele dieselfde as wat gesien word met ‘n vinniger afkoelings tempo. Die daaropvolgende verhitting analise toon dat die analise definitief afhanklik is op die voorafgaande afkoelings analise. Die ZNPP-4 monster toon dat die voorkoms van 'n skouer in die verwarming-analise word meer gedefinieerd en ‘n piek word gevorm soos die voorafgaande afkoelings tempo verlaag. Komplekse impak-polipropileen monsters, wat net verskil in die hoeveelheid etileen inhoud is geanaliseer en verskille is bepaal. Moontlike toepassings van die SCALLS instrument is ondersoek. Dit is bewys dat die instrument gebruik kan word om die fraksionering temperature vooraf te bepaal vir prep-TREF.

Thesis (PhD (Physics))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: There are many applications where a Gaussian laser beam is not ideal, for example, in areas such as medicine, data storage, science, manufacturing and so on, and yet in the vast majority of laser systems this is the fundamental output mode. Clearly this is a limitation, and is often overcome by adapting the application in mind to the available beam. A more desirable approach would be to create a laser beam as the output that is tailored for the application in mind – so called intra-cavity laser beam shaping. The main goal of intra-cavity beam shaping is the designing of laser cavities so that one can produce beams directly as the output of the cavity with the required phase and intensity distribution. Shaping the beam inside the cavity is more desirable than reshaping outside the cavity due to the introduction of additional external losses and adjustment problems. More elements are required outside the cavity which leads to additional costs and larger physical systems. In this thesis we present new methods for phase and amplitude intra– cavity beam shaping. To illustrate the methods we give both an analytical and numerical analysis of different resonator systems which are able to produce customised phase and intensity distributions. In the introduction of this thesis, a detailed overview of the key concepts of optical resonators is presented. In Chapter 2 we consider the well–known integral iteration algorithm for intra–cavity field simulation, namely the Fox–Li algorithm and a new method (matrix method), which is based on the Fox–Li algorithm and can decrease the computation time of both the Fox–Li algorithm and any integral iteration algorithms. The method can be used for any class of integral iteration algorithms which has the same calculation integrals, with changing integrants. The given method appreciably decreases the computation time of these algorithms and approaches that of a single iteration. In Chapter 3 a new approach to modeling the spatial intensity profile from Porro prism resonators is proposed based on rotating loss screens to mimic the apex losses of the prisms. A numerical model based on this approach is presented which correctly predicts the output transverse field distribution found experimentally from such resonators. In Chapter 4 we present a combination of both amplitude and phase shaping inside a cavity, namely the deployment of a suitable amplitude filter at the Fourier plane of a conventional resonator configuration with only spherical curvature optical elements, for the generation of Bessel–Gauss beams as the output. In Chapter 5 we present the analytical and numerical analyses of two new resonator systems for generating flat–top–like beams. Both approaches lead to closed form expressions for the required cavity optics, but differ substantially in the design technique, with the first based on reverse propagation of a flattened Gaussian beam, and the second a metamorphosis of a Gaussian into a flat–top beam. We show that both have good convergence properties, and result in the desired stable mode. In Chapter 6 we outline a resonator design that allows for the selection of a Gaussian mode by diffractive optical elements. This is made possible by the metamorphosis of a Gaussian beam into a flat–top beam during propagation from one end of the resonator to the other. By placing the gain medium at the flat–top beam end, it is possible to extract high energy in a low–loss cavity. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Daar is verskeie toepassings waar ʼn Gaussiese laser bundel nie ideaal is nie, in gebiede soos mediese veld, stoor van data, vervaardiging en so meer, en tog word die meeste laser sisteme in die fundamentele mode bedryf. Dit is duidelik ’n beperking, en word meestal oorkom deur aanpassing van die toepassing tot die beskikbare bundel. ’n Beter benadering sou wees om ʼn laser bundel te maak wat afgestem is op die toepassing - sogenaamde intra-resonator bundel vorming. Die hoofdoel van intra-resonator bundel vorming is om resonators te ontwerp wat direk as uitset kan lewer wat die gewenste fase en intensiteits-distribusie vertoon. Vorming van die bundel in die resonator is voordeliger omdat die vorming buite die resonator tot addisionele verliese asook verstellings probleme bydra. Meer elemente word benodig buite die resonator wat bydra tot hoër koste en groter sisteme. In hierdie tesis word nuwe fase en amplitude intra-resonator bundelvormings metodes voorgestel. Om hierdie metode te demonstreer word analitiese en numeriese analises vir verskillende resonator sisteme wat aangepaste fase en intensiteit distribusies produseer, bespreek. In die inleiding van die tesis word ʼn detailleer oorsig oor die sleutel konsepte van optiese resonators voorgelê. In hoofstuk 2 word die bekende integraal iterasie algoritme vir intraresonator veld simulasie, naamlik die Fox-Li algoritme, en ʼn nuwe metode (matriks metode), wat gebaseer is op die Fox-Li algoritme, en die berekeningstyd van beide die Fox-Li algoritme en enige ander integraal iterasie algoritme verminder. Die metode kan gebruik word om enige klas van integraal iterasie algoritmes wat dieselfde berekenings integrale het, met veranderde integrante (waar die integrand die veld van die lig golf is in die geval van die Fox-Li algoritme, IFTA, en die skerm metode. Die voorgestelde metode verminder die berekeningstyd aansienlik, en is benaderd die van ʼn enkel iterasie berekening. In hoofstuk 3 word ʼn nuwe benadering om die modellering van die ruimtelike intensiteitsprofiel van Porro prisma resonators, gebaseer op roterende verliese skerms om die apeks-verliese van die prismas te benader, voorgestel. ʼn Numeriese model gebaseer op hierdie benadering wat die uitset van die transversale veld distribusie in eksperimentele resonators korrek voorspel, word voorgestel. In hoofstuk 4 word ʼn tegniek vir die generering van Bessel-Gauss bundels deur die gebruik van ʼn kombinasie van amplitude en fase vorming in die resonator en ʼn geskikte amplitude filter in die Fourier vlak van ʼn konvensionele resonator konfigurasie met optiese elemente wat slegs sferiese krommings het, voorgestel. In hoofstuk 5 word die analitiese en numeriese analises van twee nuwe resonator sisteme vir die generering van sogenaamde “flat–top” bundels voorgestel. Beide benaderings lei na ʼn geslote vorm uitdrukking vir die resonator optika wat benodig word, maar verskil noemenswaardig in die ontwerptegniek. Die eerste is baseer op die terug voortplanting van plat Gaussiese bundel, en die tweede op metamorfose van Gaussiese “flat-top” bundel. Ons toon aan dat beide tegnieke goeie konvergensie het, en in die gevraagde stabiele modus lewer. In hoofstuk 6 skets ons die resonator ontwerp wat die selektering van ʼn Gaussiese modus deur diffraktiewe optiese element moontlik maak. Dit word moontlik deur die metamorfose van ’n Gaussiese bundel na ʼn “flat-top” gedurende die voortplanting van die een kant van die resonator na die ander. Deur die wins medium aan die “flat–top” kant van die bundel te plaas word dit moontlik om hoë energie te onttrek in ʼn lae verlies resonator.

This thesis investigates the use of Raman tweezers microspectroscopy to interrogate the biochemistry of single biological cells. Raman tweezers microspectroscopy is a powerful technique, which combines traditional Raman microspectroscopy and optical trapping, allowing the manipulation and environmental isolation of a biological cell of interest whilst simultaneously probing its biochemistry gleaning a wealth of pertinent information. The studies carried out in this thesis can be split into two broad categories: firstly, the exploitation of Raman tweezers microspectroscopy to study biological cells and secondly developments to the Raman tweezers microspectroscopy technique that extend its capabilities and the range of samples that can be studied. In the application of Raman tweezers, the stacking and interrogation of multiple cells is reported allowing a rapid representative Raman signal to be recorded from a small cell population with improved signal to noise. Also demonstrated is the ability of Raman spectroscopy to identify and grade the development of Human Papillomavirus induced cervical neoplasia with sensitivities of up to 96 %. These studies demonstrate the potential of Raman spectroscopy to study biological cells but it was noted that the traditional Raman tweezers system struggled to manipulate large cells thus a decoupled Raman tweezers microspectroscopy system is presented where a dual beam fibre optical trap is used to perform the trapping function and a separate Raman probe is introduced to probe the biochemical nature of the trapped cell. This development allowed the trapping and examination of very large cells whilst opening up the possibility of creating Raman maps of trapped objects. Raman tweezers microspectroscopy could potentially become an important clinical diagnostic and biological monitoring tool but is held back by the long signal integration times required due to the weak nature of Raman scattering. The final study presented in this thesis examines the potential of wavelength modulated Raman spectroscopy to improve signal to noise ratios and reduce integration times. All these studies aim to demonstrate the potential and extend the performance of Raman tweezers microspectroscopy.

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Engineering. Date: September 2017, Johannesburg / The focus in this research investigation is to investigate the Process Parameter Optimisation in Laser Beam Forming (LBF) process using the 4.4 kW Nd: YAG laser system – Rofin DY 044 to form 200 x 50 x 3 mm3 mild steel - AISI 1008 samples. The laser power P, beam diameter B, scan velocity V, number of scans N, and cooling flow C were the five input parameters of interest in the investigation because of their influence in the final formed product. Taguchi Design of Experiment (DoE) was used for the selection and combination of input parameters for LBF process. The investigation was done experimentally and computationally. Laser Beam Forming (LBF) input parameters were categorised to three different levels, low (L), medium (M), and high (H) laser forming (LBF) parameters to evaluate parameters that yield maximum bending and better surface finish/quality. The conclusion drawn from LBF process is that samples which are LBFormed using low parameter settings had unnoticeable bending and good material surface finishing. On the other hand, samples LBFormed using medium parameters yielded visible bending and non-smooth surface finishing, while samples processed using high LBF parameters yielded maximum bending and more surface roughness than the other two process parameters. / MT2018

The vectorial nature (polarization) of light plays a significant role in light-matter interaction that leads to a variety of optical devices. The polarization property of light has been exploited in imaging, metrology, data storage, optical communication and also extended to biological studies. Most of the past studies fully explored and dealt with the conventional polarization state of light that has spatially symmetric electrical field geometry such as linear and circular polarization. Recently, researchers have been attracted to light whose electric field vector varies in space, the so-called optical vector vortex beam (VVB). Such light is expected to further enhance and improve the efficiency of optical systems. For instance, a radially polarized light under focusing condition is capable of a tighter focus more than the general optical beams with a uniform polarization structure, which improves the resolution of the imaging system [1]. Interaction of ultrafast laser pulses with matter leads to numerous applications in material processing and biology for imaging and generation of microfluidic systems. A femtosecond pulse, with very high intensities of (10^{12} - 10^{13} W/cm^2), has the potential to trigger a phenomenon of optical breakdown at the surface and therefore induce permanent material modification. With such high intensities and taking into account the fact that most materials possess large bandgap, the interaction is completely nonlinear in nature, and the target material can be modified locally upon the surface and even further in bulk. The phenomenon of optical breakdown can be further investigated by studying the nonlinear absorption. Properties like very short pulse duration and the high irradiance of ultrashort laser pulse lead to more precise results during the laser ablation process over the long pulsed laser. The duration of femtosecond laser pulse provides a high resolution for material processing because of the significant low heat-affected zone (HAZ) beyond the desired interaction spot generated upon irradiating the material. Under certain condition, the interaction of intense ultrashort light pulses with the material gives rise to the generation of periodic surface structures with a sub-micron periodicity, i.e., much smaller than the laser wavelength. The self-oriented periodic surface structures generated by irradiating the material with multiple femtosecond laser pulses results in improving the functionality of the material's surface such as controlling wettability, improving thin film adhesion, and minimizing friction losses in automobile engines, consequently, influences positively on many implementations. In this work, we introduced a new method to study complex polarization states of light by imprinting them on a solid surface in the form of periodic nano-structures. Micro/Nanostructuring of diamond by ultrafast pulses is of extreme importance because of its potential applications in photonics and other related fields. We investigated periodic surface structures usually known as laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) formed by Gaussian beam as well as with structured light carrying orbital angular momentum (OAM), generated by a birefringent optical device called a q-plate (QP). We generated conventional nano-structures on diamond surface using linearly and circularly polarized Gaussian lights at different number of pulses and variable pulse energies. In addition, imprinting the complex polarization state of different orders of optical vector vortex beams on a solid surface was fulfilled in the form of periodic structures oriented parallel to the local electric field of optical light. We also produced a variety of unconventional surface structures by superimposing a Gaussian beam with a vector vortex beam or by superposition of different order vector vortex beams. This thesis is divided into five chapters, giving a brief description about laser-matter interaction, underlying the unique characterization of femtosecond laser over the longer pulse laser and mechanisms of material ablation under the irradiation of fs laser pulse. This chapter also presents some earlier studies reported in formation of (LIPSS) fabricated on diamond with Gaussian. The second chapter explains the properties of twisted light possessing orbital angular momentum in its wavefront, a few techniques used for OAM generation including a full explanation of the q-plate from the fabrication to the function of the q-plate, and the tool utilized to represent the polarization state of light (SoP), a Poincar'e sphere. Finally, the experimental details and results are discussed in the third and fourth chapters, respectively, following with a conclusion chapter that briefly summarizes the thesis and some potential application of our findings.

The effect of the refraction of a laser beam propagating through three different phase objects, i.e. a laser produced plasma and two different gas media, is investigated in this thesis. It is shown that these effects have useful applications. As an introduction to the work performed, a basic discussion of the theory of light is given. In the first experimental study, the accuracy of using the Refractive Fringe Diagnostic, as a tool to determine the electron density profiles of laser produced plasmas, is investigated [Buccellato et al. (1992)]. A comparative study is performed between an established method of determining the electron density profiles of laser produced plasmas, i.e. Nomarski interferometry, and the Refractive Fringe Diagnostic, by comparing experimental data obtained from the same laser shot. For the electron density profiles investigated, it is shown that the Refractive Fringe Diagnostic over-estimates the electron density by an order of magnitude. It is suggested that the electron density errors are due to the inherent assumptions of the Refractive Fringe Diagnostic. To verify this, a numerical simulation into the accuracy of the RFD is performed on a mathematically modelled plasma. The discrepancy in the numerical results are consistent with those of the experimental results and these can be attributed to the assumptions made by the Refractive Fringe Diagnostic. Laser light refracted by a gas medium, with a specific density profile, may produce a near diffraction limited focal spot. The remaining two experimental investigations deal with two novel gas lenses: the Pulsed Gas Lens and the Colliding Shock Lens. A radially expanding cylinder of gas produces a suitable density structure to focus laser light. A design of a gas lens, the Pulsed Gas Lens, using this principle is proposed as a final focusing lens for a laser fusion power station [Buccellato et al. (1993a)]. To establish the feasibility of such a lens a proof-of- principle design for the lens is given. A numerical simulation of this lens is performed by modelling the gas flow from the lens and raytracing through the determined density profiles inside the lens. It is found that this lens can be used as a focusing element. To establish certain practical aspects of the proof-of- principle design, a beam deflection device was constructed and tested. This beam deflection device models the lensing principle of the proposed lens. The laser beam deflection observed did not match the computed deflection. The opening mechanism for the proof-of-principle design did not produce an instantaneous opening of the chamber as was assumed in the simulation. The opening mechanism must be modified to decrease the opening time. Diverging spherical shock waves, produced by pairs of opposing electrodes evenly spaced on a circumference, produce a converging cylindrically symmetric shock wave. After convergence a suitable density structure exists for near diffraction li.mited focusing to occur. It is found that the Colliding Shock Lens is a varifocal lens: the focal length and lens diameter increase with time [Buccellato et al. (1993b)]. A numerical simulation is performed to model the operation of the Colliding Shock Lens. The numerical results compare favourably with the experimental results. From the simulation it is established that the lens diameter can be scaled up by increasing the physical size of the lens and the input energy to the lens. Potential applications of the colliding shock lens are discussed. To conclude this thesis, the results of the separate investigations are summarised. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, 1994.

A major area of research recently has been the study of nonlinear waves in liquid crystals. The availability of commercial liquid crystals and the formation of solitons at mWpower levels has meant that experimental research and the need to understand how the solitons are formed and interact has been boosted. The first part of the thesis looks at how two laser beams in a nematic liquid crystal interact. Specifically research has centred on the problem of directing a signal beam to a target area by varying the input angle of the control beam. Different approximate models are developed to describe this phenomena, with the results from these models compared to a full numerical analysis. The first model developed is called the particle model and is based on the unmodified modulation equations. The results from this model were acceptable when compared with the results obtained from a full numerical analysis. This comparison is indicative that the underlying assumptions of the model did not capture an essential part of interaction between the two laser beams. The second model used to describe the interaction between the two laser beams was based on the law of conservation of momentum in the laser beams. Here the potential between the laser beams was modified to take into account the profile of the beams. The results from this model were in excellent agreement with results from the full numerical analysis, showing the key role potential between the beams plays in the trajectories of the beams. The interaction between dark solitons was also studied. The model used in this case was based on the modulation equations with a suitable trial function for dark solitons. The results from this model were in excellent agreement with the results from the full numerical analysis. The behaviour of the dark solitons shown by the approximate model and the full numerical analysis showing similar key features. This thesis sets out the equations describing the interaction of laser beams in liquid crystals. These are the equations used to carry out a full numerical analysis. This analysis is valuable in its own right and is the standard to compare the results obtained from other models but to achieve a deeper understanding of how laser beams interact in liquid crystals approximate models are developed so that the important parameters in each model can be identified. The Lagrangian describing the interaction of laser beams in liquid crystals is used in all the approximate models. The approximate models can then be developed through the use of suitable trial functions that adequately describe how the laser beams interact. The derivation of the equations and how these equations are solved is described for each model. The results from each model are compared to a full numerical analysis with a discussion of how the results compare.

Using the concept of the build-up cavity for second harmonic generation to produce 243nm laser light, an innovative cavity is theoretically explored using a 15mm length CLBO crystal. In order to limit the losses of the cavity, the number of effective optical surfaces is kept to only four and the use of a MgF2 crystal is adopted to separate the harmonic and fundamental laser beam from each other. The cavity is shown to have an expected round trip loss of five tenths of a percent or better, resulting in a conversion efficiency greater than 65%.

Laser beams can be manipulated by volume diffractive elements in addition to conventional optical elements like mirrors, lenses, and beam splitters. Conventional optical elements can be described by applying the basic laws of reflection and refraction at the surfaces of the elements. Even diffraction by surface gratings utilizes relatively simple mathematics. This is to be contrasted with the volume diffraction, which requires coupled wave theory in the slowly varying envelope approximation (SVEA) to obtain accurate results. Efficient spatially distributed diffraction of laser beams is possible due to the high coherence of laser light, and it occurs at specific resonant Bragg conditions. This research work is inspired and driven by the successful development of recording technology for robust, high-efficiency volume Bragg gratings (VBGs) in photo-thermo-refractive (PTR) glass. Mostly VBGs of the reflective type are discussed in this dissertation. Starting with an analysis of electro-magnetic wave propagation in layered media, we have reformulated Fresnel and volume reflection phenomena in terms of a convenient parameter – strength of reflection. The influence that the different non-uniformities inside a VBG have on its spectral properties has been examined. One important result of this work is the proposal of moiré VBG and the derivation of an analytical expression for its bandwidth. A multiplexed VBG used as a coherent combiner is discussed as well. Beam distortion via transmission through and/or reflection by a heated VBG due to residual absorption is analyzed.

A probability density function is developed for the phase of light that is the result of adding a signal to noise with K-distributed amplitude and uniform phase. The probability density function of the phase associated with the I-K distribution is also developed. In the process of deriving the probability density function of the phase much I as learned about the relationships between different probability density functions. Three different methods of deriving homodyned K statistics are shown to be equivalent. Two different methods of deriving I-K statistics are shown to be equivalent. Theoretical moments of the homodyned K distribution are compared with experimentally measured moments in order to determine the parameters of the model for different conditions of turbulence. An experiment is proposed for measuring the spatial structure function of the phase in a manner that will allow verifying the accuracy of the new probability density functions of the phase.