The deficiencies of traditional dendrometry mean improvements in methods of tree mensuration are necessary in order to obtain accurate tree metrics for applications such as resource appraisal, and biophysical and ecological modelling. This thesis tests the potential of SfM-MVS (Structure-fromMotion with Multi-View Stereo-photogrammetry) using the software package PhotoScan Professional, for accurately determining linear (2D) and volumetric (3D) tree metrics. SfM is a remote sensing technique, in which the 3D position of objects is calculated from a series of photographs, resulting in a 3D point cloud model. Unlike other photogrammetric techniques, SfM requires no control points or camera calibration. The MVS component of model reconstruction generates a mesh surface based on the structure of the SfM point cloud. The study was divided into two research components, for which two different groups of study trees were used: 1) 30 small, potted ‘nursery’ trees (mean height 2.98 m), for which exact measurements could be made and field settings could be modified, and; 2) 35 mature ‘landscape’ trees (mean height 8.6 m) located in parks and reserves in urban areas around the South Island, New Zealand, for which field settings could not be modified. The first component of research tested the ability of SfM-MVS to reconstruct spatially-accurate 3D models from which 2D (height, crown spread, crown depth, stem diameter) and 3D (volume) tree metrics could be estimated. Each of the 30 nursery trees was photographed and measured with traditional dendrometry to obtain ground truth values with which to evaluate against SfM-MVS estimates. The trees were destructively sampled by way of xylometry, in order to obtain true volume values. The RMSE for SfM-MVS estimates of linear tree metrics ranged between 2.6% and 20.7%, and between 12.3% and 47.5% for volumetric tree metrics. Tree stems were reconstructed very well though slender stems and branches were reconstructed poorly. The second component of research tested the ability of SfM-MVS to reconstruct spatially-accurate 3D models from which height and DBH could be estimated. Each of the 35 landscape trees, which varied in height and species, were photographed, and ground truth values were obtained to evaluate against SfM-MVS estimates. As well as this, each photoset was thinned to find the minimum number of images required to achieve total image alignment in PhotoScan and produce an SfM point cloud (minimum photoset), from which 2D metrics could be estimated. The height and DBH were estimated by SfM-MVS from the complete photosets with RMSE of 6.2% and 5.6% respectively. The height and DBH were estimated from the minimum photosets with RMSE of 9.3% and 7.4% respectively. The minimum number of images required to achieve total alignment was between 20 and 50. There does not appear to be a correlation between the minimum number of images required for alignment and the error in the estimates of height or DBH (R2 =0.001 and 0.09 respectively). Tree height does not appear to affect the minimum number of images required for image alignment (R 2 =0.08).

Den nya mätningstekniken på marknaden kallas terrester laserskanning. Tekniken bygger på att ett instrument, monterat på ett stativ, sänder ut en laserstråle vilken avlänkas i vertikalled av en spegel samtidigt som det roterar. Laserstrålen reflekteras mot de objekt som befinner sig inom laserskannerns synfält och resulterar i ett punktmoln. Punktmolnet innehåller ofta flera miljoner punkter vilka alla erhåller xyz-koordinater. Tekniken har visat sig lämplig vid dokumentation av byggnader och vid modellering samt kartläggning av industrier och tunnelbyggen. Denna studie har genomförts på Sweco VBB i Karlstad i syfte att ta reda på hur lämplig terrester laserskanning är vid vardaglig inmätning och kartering av objekt i stadsmiljö. Metoden har jämförts med traditionell inmätning med totalstation utifrån ett antal frågeställningar. I studien laserskannades två korsningar i Vasastaden, Stockholm. Instrumentet som användes var en IMAGER 5006 av märket Zoller+Fröhlich. De totalt sex stycken skanningarna resulterade i punktmoln vilka georefererades genom att måltavlor mättes in med totalstation. Efterbearbetningen bestod av registrering, redigering och reducering av punktmolnen. Genom manuell tolkning av punktmolnen och med hjälp av verktyget Virtual Surveyor i Leica Geosystems programvara Cyclone, kunde olika objekt mätas in och kartläggning av de båda korsningarna ske. En generell jämförelse mellan terrester laserskanning och totalstation visar att laserskanning är en snabb metod som ger stora mängder data med hög detaljrikedom, medger en större säkerhet i fält och ger enorma möjligheter för visualisering, modellering och skapande av terrängmodeller. Laserskanning är dock en dyr metod som ger en något sämre noggrannhet och som ännu inte klarar att mäta sträckor över hundra meter. Metoden kräver också totalstation (eller GPS) för georeferering. Studien har också visat att tidsvinsten som uppkommer i fält förloras genom tidsödande efterbearbetning och manuell tolkning av punktmolnet. Trots detta använder idag ett flertal företag denna metod vid inmätning. Slutsatserna pekar främst på att laserskanning som inmätningsmetod lämpar sig bäst över små områden där antalet objekt är högt och där säkerheten i fält är viktig. Dock ses metoden mer som ett komplement till totalstationen genom de möjligheter som erbjuds via visualisering och modellering och därmed inte en ersättare för den senare. / A new technique for surveying is the terrestrial laser scanning. The technique is based on an instrument, mounted on a tripod, emitting a laser pulse which is vertically deflected by a mirror while rotating. The laser pulse is reflected by the objects within the field of view of the laser scanner. The laser scan results in a point cloud most often containing several millions of points which all have XYZ-coordinates. The technique has proven its benefits when documenting buildings, modelling and surveying of industries and tunnels. This study has been carried out at Sweco VBB in Karlstad in purpose of finding out how suitable terrestrial laser scanning is for everyday surveying in urban environment. The method has been compared with traditional surveying with total station from a number of questions. In the study two crossings in Vasastaden, Stockholm, were scanned. The instrument used was an IMAGER 5006 from Zoller+Fröhlich. The 6 scannings resulted in point clouds which were georeferenced by using targets and a total station. The post processing consisted of registering, editing and reducing the point clouds. Through manual interpretation of the point clouds and by using the tool Virtual Surveyor in the program Cyclone by Leica Geosystems it was possible to survey different objects at the crossings. A general comparison between terrestrial laser scanning and total station shows that laser scanning is a rapid method producing large amounts of data with a high level of details, allows higher security in field and gives enormous possibilities for visualisation, modelling and creating of terrain models. However, laser scanning is an expensive method which gives a slightly lower accuracy and yet cannot be used for longer distances. The method also demands total station (or GPS) for georeferencing. The study has also shown that the saving of time in field is lost by time consuming post processing and manual interpretation of the point cloud. Nonetheless this method is used by several companies for everyday surveying. The conclusions advert mostly that laser scanning is best suitable for small areas where the number of objects is high and where security in field is important. Nevertheless, the method should be seen more as a compliment to the total station because of the possibilities offered by visualisation and modelling and therefore not as a replacement for the latter.

Bereits seit Längerem wird das terrestrische Laser Scanning zur Vermessung von über- und unterirdischen Bauwerken eingesetzt. Die Forderung nach einer detaillierten digitalen 3D-Dokumentation erfordert geeignete Methoden, die eine möglichst hohe geometrische Auflösung bei entsprechend effizienten Aufnahmeverfahren ermöglichen. Gerade die Bedingungen unter Tage stellen große Herausforderungen an die Aufnahme: Obwohl viele Scanpositionen aufgenommen werden müssen, spielt der Zeitaufwand für die Abwicklung des gesamten Scanprojekts eine große Rolle. Obwohl keine GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System)-Messungen möglich sind, sind die Anforderungen an die Robustheit des „Workflows“ und an die Genauigkeit des Gesamtprojekts hoch. Auf der einen Seite sollen große und komplexe 3D-Daten möglichst lückenfrei und komplett aufgenommen, auf der anderen Seite sollen die Ergebnisse dann aber auch möglichst vielen Anwendern flüssig und intuitiv bedienbar zur Verfügung stehen. In vielen Details wurde gerade in den letzten Jahren der gesamte Aufnahme- und Auswerteprozess beschleunigt und verbessert: Die Laserscanner messen mit „Millimeter-Genauigkeit“, es können dutzende hochauflösende Scans pro Stunde aufgenommen werden, die Scanpositionen werden auch ohne GNSS-Information automatisch zueinander registriert und eine Ausgleichsrechnung kann abschließend einen Fehlerreport des gesamten Vermessungsprojektes liefern. Diese Arbeit soll sowohl den gesamten „Vermessungs-Workflow“ beschreiben, als auch eine neue Methode aufzeigen, ein Scanprojekt mehreren Institutionen gleichzeitig zugänglich zu machen. Alle Scans eines Projektes können speicheroptimiert im Intranet oder im Internet als ein sogenanntes „RiPANO“-Projekt gespeichert werden. Die Navigation zwischen einzelnen Scanpositionen erfolgt intuitiv, rasch und übersichtlich. Mehrere Benutzer können dann gleichzeitig darauf zugreifen und die Daten so vorbereiten, dass daraus CAD-(Bestands-)Pläne erstellt werden können. / For some time now, terrestrial laser scanning has been used for surveying above and below ground structures. The demand for detailed digital 3D documentation requires suitable methods that allow the highest possible geometric resolution with correspondingly efficient recording methods. The underground conditions in particular pose great challenges for the recording: although many scan positions have to be recorded, the time required to complete an entire scan project plays an important role. Although no GNSS (global navigation satellite system) measurements are possible, the demands on the robustness of the registration and the accuracy of the overall project are high. On the one hand, large and complex 3D data should be recorded as gap-free and complete as possible, on the other hand, the results should be made available to as many users as possible in a fluent and easy to use way.

The mining industry has over the last few decades seen a drastic increase in the usage of laser scanning technologies as a way of creating 3D maps of the mines being exploited. Underground mapping in places such as mines has become more prevalent as the technology has progressed and made it easier to generate highly detailed point clouds faster. A newer and faster method of generating point clouds is using a simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) based mobile laser scanner (MLS). With the help of complex algorithms, it enables instant point cloud registration and allows for continuous mapping of the surrounding environment while tracking the device location without needing a connection to GPS. As the accuracy and speed of SLAM based MLS continues to improve, its use is becoming far more widespread within the mining industry. Although studies have been conducted previously investigating the differences in quality between SLAM based MLS and terrestrial laser scanners (TLS), there is still a need for further studies conducted in mining environments. This case study aims to investigate the quality differences between two point clouds generated using an Emesent Hovermap HF1, which is a SLAM based MLS, and a Faro Laser Scanner Focus 3D X 330 TLS. Parameters like root mean square (RMS) were investigated. Volume calculations were carried out for both point clouds and compared to each other as well the calculated volume of a theoretical model. To conduct this study data from LKAB’s Kiruna mine was collected and provided by Blå Projekt, Process & GIS AB. The result of this study concludes that the Faro TLS is superior in terms of point cloud quality, with five times better RMS values and higher point density than the Hovermap MLS. It also shows that both scanners allowed for accurate volume calculations with only roughly 1% difference in the estimated volumes. The TLS method yielded a much more readable point cloud with clearer visual details than the SLAM based MLS method. This may however be a result of SLAM drift since no loop closure was performed when collecting the MLS data which otherwise could’ve minimized the errors. It was concluded that due to the amount of data processing required and the longer work time of TLS, SLAM based MLS is a method that is worth further development as it provides unparalleled flexibility, safety improvements and work time efficiency.

A reproducible in vitro model of mechanically injured (scalpel cut) articular cartilage was developed in this work utilising bovine and human osteochondral tissue. Using fluorescence-mode confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), the model allowed (1) spatial and temporal quantification of in situ (within the matrix) chondrocyte viability following a full thickness cartilage injury and (2) serial evaluation of three chondroprotective strategies in injured bovine and human articular cartilage: (a) medium osmolarity (b) medium calcium concentration and, (c) subchondral bone attachment to articular cartilage. Medium osmolarity significantly influenced superficial zone chondrocyte death in injured (scalpel cut) bovine and human articular cartilage. Greatest percentage cell death occurred at 0 mOsm (distilled water). Conversely, a raised medium osmolarity (600 mOsm) was chondroprotective. The majority of in situ cell death occurred within 2.5 hours of the experimental injury, with no further increase over 7 days. Exposure of articular cartilage to calcium-free media significantly decreased superficial zone chondrocyte death in injured (scalpel cut) articular cartilage compared with exposure to calcium-rich media (2-20 mM). In calcium-rich media, the extent of percentage cell death increased with increasing medium calcium concentration but remained localised to the superficial zone of injured articular cartilage over 7 days. However, in calcium-free media, there was an increase in percentage cell death within deeper zones of injured articular cartilage over 7 days. Excision of subchondral bone from injured (scalpel cut) articular cartilage resulted in an increase in chondrocyte death at 7 days that occurred in the superficial zone of injured as well as the adjacent uninjured regions of articular cartilage. However, the presence of subchondral bone in the culture medium prevented this increase in chondrocyte death within the superficial zone. Subchondral bone may have interacted with articular cartilage via soluble mediator(s) that influenced chondrocyte survival. In human articular cartilage, healthy subchondral bone also interacted with articular cartilage in explant culture and promoted in situ chondrocyte survival, while sclerotic subchondral bone was detrimental to chondrocyte viability. These findings are of translational relevance to fluid management systems used during open and arthroscopic articular surgery, clinical and experimental research into cartilage injury, repair and degeneration as well as current techniques of tissue engineering.

A compact multi-photon microscope (MPM) was designed and developed with the use of low-cost mode-locked fiber lasers operating at 1040nm and 1560nm. The MPM was assembled in-house and the system aberration was investigated using the optical design software: Zemax. A novel characterization methodology based on 'nonlinear knife-edge' technique was also introduced to measure the axial, lateral resolution, and the field curvature of the multi-photon microscope's image plane. The field curvature was then post-corrected using data processing in MATLAB. A customized laser scanning software based on LabVIEW was developed for data acquisition, image display and controlling peripheral electronics. Finally, different modalities of multi-photon excitation such as second- and third harmonic generation, two- and three-photon fluorescence were utilized to study a wide variety of samples from cancerous cells to 2D-layered materials.

Geogrid reinforced structures have been successfully used for over 25 years. However their design procedures have remained largely focused on ultimate failure mechanisms, originally developed for steel reinforcements. These are widely considered over conservative in determining realistic reinforcement and lateral earth stresses. The poor understanding of deformation performance led many design codes to restrict acceptable soils to selected sand and gravel fills, where deformation is not as concerning. Within UK construction there is a drive to reduce wastage, improve efficiency and reduce associated greenhouse gas emissions. For geogrid reinforced structures this could mean increasing reinforcement spacing and reusing weaker locally sourced soils. Both of these strategies increase deformation, raising concern about the lack of understanding and reliable guidance. As a result they fail to fulfil their efficiency potential. This Engineering Doctorate improved the understanding of horizontal deformation by analysing performance using laboratory testing, laser scanning industry structures and numerical modelling. Full-scale models were used to demonstrate a reduction in deformation by decreasing reinforcement spacing. Their results were combined with primary and secondary case studies to create a diverse database. This was used to validate a finite element model, differentiating between two often used construction methods. Its systematic analysis was extended to consider the deformation consequences of using low shear strength granular fills. The observations offered intend to reduce uncertainty and mitigate excessive deformations, which facilitates the further optimisation of designs.

För att kunna konkurrera inom dagens fordonsindustri krävs effektiv produktutveckling. Det är under designprocessen som det finns störst möjlighet att påverka slutprodukten till det bättre. Ett sätt att åstadkomma effektivare produktutveckling är att tillämpa ny teknik. För att generera digitaliserade vägmodeller som används i simuleringar kan laserskanning appliceras. I dessa simuleringar kan fordonen testköras virtuellt och därigenom förkorta dimensioneringsprocessen. Laserskanning av kuperad terräng är komplex och därför saknas det underlag av kuperade testbanor i simuleringar. Denna studie syftar till att presentera olika laserskanningstekniker samt att utöka underlaget för virtuella simuleringar inom dimensioneringsprocessen av dumprar. Målet med arbetet är att skapa virtuella vägsektioner som kan användas i simuleringsmodeller.  Tre huvudtekniker inom laserskanning presenteras i teorikapitlet. Vidare har terrest laserskanning utförts på Volvos testbana i Målajord och med skanningsdata som underlag har en vägmodell som kan användas i fordonssimuleringar skapats i Matlab. Vägmodellen som skapats representerar väl den verkliga körbanan, vilket indikerar att terrest laserskanning är en väl fungerande metod för detta ändamål. / Product development is necessary to compete in today´s vehicle industry. During the design process the largest possibility to affect the end product to the better exists. One way to achieve product development is to apply new technology. Through application of terrestrial laser scanning digitalized road models can be achieved and be used in simulations. In these simulations, vehicles can virtually do a trial run and thereby shorten the dimensionprocess. Laser scanning of hilly terrain is complex and therefore groundwork of hilly roadways in simulations is missing.  This study refers to present different types of laser scanning methods and expand the groundwork for virtual simulations in the dimensionprocess of dumpers. The vision is to create virtual roadways which can be used in simulation models. Three main techniques of laser scanning are presented in the theory chapter. Further on terrestrial laser scanning has been used on Volvos test track in Målajord and with this scanning data as groundwork a road model, which can be used in vehicle simulations, has been created in Matlab. The road model is well representing the real roadway, which indicates that terrestrial laser scanning is a well working method for this purpose.

<p>Conventional airborne laser scanner systems output the three-dimensional coordinates of the surface location hit by the laser pulse. Data storage capacity and processing speeds available today has made it possible to digitally sample and store the entire reflected waveform, instead of only extracting the coordinates. Research has shown that return waveforms can give even more detailed insights into the vertical structure of surface objects, surface slope, roughness and reflectivity than the conventional systems. One of the most important advantages with registering the waveforms is that it gives the user the possibility to himself define the way range is calculated in post-processing. </p><p>In this thesis different techniques have been tested to visualize a waveform data set in order to get a better understanding of the waveforms and how they can be used to improve methods for classification of ground objects.</p><p>A pulse detection algorithm, using the EM algorithm, has been implemented and tested. The algorithm output position and width of the echo pulses. One of the results of this thesis is that echo pulses reflected by vegetation tend to be wider than those reflected by for example a road. Another result is that up till five echo pulses can be detected compared to two echo pulses that the conventional system detects.</p>

<p>This thesis considers the effect of manufacturing conditions and polymer ratio on water permeability and morphology of free-films. A novel spray method for producing ethyl cellulose (EC) and hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) free-films was developed where several process parameters was controlled. The process was optimised by pre-spraying solvent until the system reached a steady-state temperature. This minimised the variation of outlet air temperature to < 2.5 °C. Coating time was approximately 4 minutes excluding drying.</p><p>Free-films were produced using 94 wt% solvent (95 %-ethanol) and 6 wt% polymer. The amount of HPC in the films was varied (wt% HPC defined as HPC/(HPC+EC)*100). Films with 30-40-50-57 wt% HPC were studied. Phase diagrams was constructed to study the phase transformation of polymer mixtures. Results show that all polymer mixtures with HPC content above 30 wt% were phase separated prior to film manufacturing. Temperature had an effect on the polymer phase transformation. In the phase diagram, the 2-phase area was larger for temperatures above 40 °C.</p><p>The investigated manufacturing conditions were outlet air temperature (°C) and spray rate (g/min). Outlet air temperature was controlled by adjusting the inlet air temperature. The films were characterized by measuring water permeability (m²/s). Cross section structure of the films was analyzed with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). FITC-HPC was added for enhanced contrast between the domains.</p><p>Higher outlet air temperature gave higher water permeability of the film whereas higher spray rate gave lower water permeability. The outlet air temperature had an impact on evaporation rate. The evaporation rate together with spray rate affected the solidification and hence the structure of the film. Images show that longer solidification time smeared the domains into larger domains. Lower water permeability was caused by less connectivity between the pores.</p><p>In conclusion, experiments show that water permeability of EC/HPC free-films was highly dependent on the manufacturing conditions.</p><p></p>