A team from Brigham Young University and I performed full-scale lateral load tests on individual and grouped 12.75x0.375 inch pipe piles spaced at varying distances behind an MSE wall. The individually loaded pile which acted as a control was spaced at 4.0 pile diameters from the wall face, and the three grouped piles which were loaded in unison were spaced at 3.0, 2.8, and 1.8 pile diameters from the wall face and transversely spaced at 4.7 pile diameters center-to-center. The purpose of these tests was to determine the extent of group effects on lateral pile resistance, induced loads in soil reinforcements, and MSE wall panel deflections compared to those previously observed in individually laterally loaded piles behind MSE walls. The computer model LPILE was used in my analysis of the measured test data. The p-multipliers back-calculated with LPILE for the grouped piles were 0.25, 0.60, and 0.25 for the grouped piles spaced at 3.0, 2.8, and 1.8 pile diameters from the wall, respectively. These values are lower than that predicted for piles at the same pile-to-wall spacings using the most recent equation for computing p-multipliers. I propose the use of an additional p-multiplier for grouped piles near an MSE wall, a group-effect p-multiplier, to account for discrepancies between individual and grouped pile behaviors. The group effect p-multipliers were 0.35, 0.91, and 0.74 for the grouped piles spaced at 3.0, 2.8, and 1.8 pile diameters from the wall, respectively. The average group-effect p-multiplier was 0.66. Additionally, I used LPILE to analyze test data from Pierson et al. (2009), who had previously performed full-scale lateral load tests of individual and grouped shafts. In said analysis, the group of three 3-foot diameter concrete shafts spaced at 2.0 shaft diameters from the wall face and transversely spaced at 5.0 shaft diameters center-to-center had an average group effect p-multiplier of 0.78. As in previous studies, the induced forces in soil reinforcements in this study were greatest either near the locations of the test piles or at the MSE wall face. The most recent equation for calculating the maximum induced force in a soil reinforcement strip was reasonably effective in predicting the measured maximum loads when superimposed between the test piles, with 65% and 85% of the data points falling within the one and two standard deviation boundaries, respectively, of the original data used to develop the equation. Deflection of the MSE wall panels was greater during the grouped pile test than was previously observed for individually loaded piles under similar pile head deflections--with a maximum wall deflection of 0.31 inch compared to the previous average of 0.10 inch for pile head deflections of about 1.25 inches.

Pile-supported T-walls, which are concrete floodwalls that are shaped like an inverted "T" and supported by batter piles, are commonly used by the United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) to protect low-lying portions of New Orleans and other areas. The design of a T-wall in southern Louisiana is complex, as the structure needs to resist both 1) large settlements caused by fill placed beneath and beside the T-wall before T-wall construction or by fill placed beside the T-wall after T-wall construction, and 2) large lateral flood loads that are imposed during a hurricane. As a result of these loading conditions, large bending moments can develop in the batter piles and these moments need to be accounted for as part of the T wall design. The goal of this research is to develop a more complete understanding of the pile bending moments in T wall systems, specifically for cross sections where large settlements may occur. As a first step towards this goal, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) performed a series of eight centrifuge tests to investigate and physically model the effects of settlement-induced bending moments on pile-supported T-walls. The centrifuge tests were evaluated and interpreted, and in order to better capture uncertainty, upper and lower bounds were estimated for the interpreted data. The centrifuge results offered some valuable insights on their own, but were ultimately used as the basis for validating and calibrating corresponding numerical models. The numerical models were developed following a rigorous modeling approach and using rational and reasonable assumptions based on widely-accepted and well-justified procedures. The numerical model results were in good agreement with the centrifuge results without the need for significant calibration or modifications. This good agreement indicates that similar numerical models can be developed to reliably analyze actual T-wall cross sections. Detailed recommendations were developed for using numerical models to analyze pile-supported T walls, and an example problem is presented herein that illustrates the application of this approach. These same techniques were then used to perform a parametric study to analyze the combined and separate effects of flood loading for a wide range of different T-wall cross sections. The range was selected in collaboration with the USACE in order to reasonably cover cross sections and conditions that 1) are typically encountered in practice, and 2) were expected to generate both upper and lower bound pile bending moments. In total, 3,648 cross sections were analyzed, and 29,184 sets of analysis results were generated since each cross section was analyzed for eight different loading conditions. Summary results are provided to show the influence of the loading conditions and parameters on T-wall response, including the influence of flood loading, new fill symmetry, pile fixity, number of piles, subsurface profile, pile batter, pile type, levee slope, T-wall elevation, and the presence of existing levee fill. In addition, the key results for all of the analyses are provided in the appendices and in an electronic database. Based on the parametric study results, a simplified analysis procedure was developed that can be used to calculated maximum pile bending moments for T walls installed directly on foundation soils due to settlements. In this procedure, the loads from new fill placed during or after T-wall construction are distributed onto the pile, and the pile response is analyzed using traditional p-y curves and a beam on elastic foundation formulation. This procedure shows good agreement with the numerical model results for a range of conditions. To demonstrate the application of the procedure, the same example problem that is analyzed numerically is reanalyzed using the simplified analysis procedure. Due to the complexity of the problem, it was not possible to modify this procedure or develop a similar procedure for T-walls installed on top of new or existing levees. Overall, this research demonstrates that numerical models can be used to calculate the bending moments that can develop in pile-supported T-walls due to settlements and flood loading, provides valuable insights into the behavior of T-walls and the influence of various parameters on T-wall response, presents a large database of T-wall analysis results, and recommends a simplified analysis procedure that can be used in some cases to calculate pile bending moments due to settlements. / Ph. D.

O conjunto estaca-solo submetido a carregamentos horizontais é caracterizado por um comportamento não-linear. A propagação das tensões no solo próximo à estaca decai rapidamente em função do espaçamento, porém para estacas próximas, caracterizando um grupo de estacas, pode haver uma sobreposição de tensões, gerando zonas com tensões elevadas, que formam áreas de plastificação maiores. A interação da sobreposição destas zonas plastificadas, resultam em maiores deformações para o grupo de estacas, ante comparadas com o equivalente de soma da capacidade individual de cada estaca (Chaudhry, 1994). Deste comportamento, deriva-se o chamado efeito de grupo, que age como um redutor da eficiência total das estacas. Através de modelos numéricos tridimensionais, avaliou-se o efeito de espaçamento entre estacas em solo natural, onde fatores de eficiência do grupo foram propostos. O comportamento de estacas carregadas lateralmente é conhecido por ter seu comportamento diretamente relacionado com as características da parte superior do solo. Recomendações feitas há mais de 30 anos já lidavam com este comportamento {e.g. Simons eMenzies (1975); Broms (1972)}, e tratavam com soluções que melhoravam a capacidade de carga lateral, com a substituição da parte superior do solo por um material mais rígido. Embora estas soluções melhorassem a capacidade de carga lateral, a técnica reflete uma prática de substituição de material. Neste trabalho, uma técnica de melhoramento de solo, lidando com areia cimentada é apresentada, estudando numericamente o comportamento de grupos de estacas submetidos a carregamentos laterais. As conclusões apontam fatores de eficiência próximos a unidade em espaçamentos superiores a 6 diâmetros, porém com a tendência a inexistir somente em espaçamentos superiores a 10 diâmetros. A inserção da camada de solo cimento no topo do grupo de estaca, mostrou uma expressiva melhora de seu comportamento, eliminando por total a perda de eficiência devido ao efeito de grupo. / The soil-pile set when subjected to lateral loads is characterized by a non-linear behavior. The stress distribution on the soil near the pile decays rapidly in magnitude with radial distance, but for closely spaced piles within a group, these yielded zones of the soil around individual piles overlap, forming larger yielded zones in the soil surrounding the pile group. The interaction arising due to overlapping of these yielded zones results in a larger deflection for the group of piles before the lateral resistance equivalent to that for a single pile (Chaudhry, 1994). Based on this behavior, the group effect is derived, which acts as a reducer of the piles efficiency. Through tridimensional numerical models, the effects of the pile spacing in natural soil were evaluated, and group efficiency factors had been proposed. The behavior of laterally loaded piles is well known to be straightly related to characteristics of the upper part of the soil. Recommendations of over 30 years in past already dealt with this behavior {e.g. Simons and Menzies (1975); Broms (1972)}, and treated with solutions that improved the lateral resistance, by substituting the upper part of the soil with a more rigid material. Besides those solutions improved the lateral resistance, the technique reflects a practice of material replacement. Here, a ground improvement technique, dealing with cemented sand is presented, studying numerically the behavior of piles subjected to lateral forces. Conclusions shows group efficiency factors close to unity on spacing larger than 6 diameters, but tending to disappear only on spacing larger than 10 diameters. The insertion of a soil cement layer on the top of the pile group has shown an expressive improvement on its behavior, eliminating the loss of efficiency due to the group effect.

O conjunto estaca-solo submetido a carregamentos horizontais é caracterizado por um comportamento não-linear. A propagação das tensões no solo próximo à estaca decai rapidamente em função do espaçamento, porém para estacas próximas, caracterizando um grupo de estacas, pode haver uma sobreposição de tensões, gerando zonas com tensões elevadas, que formam áreas de plastificação maiores. A interação da sobreposição destas zonas plastificadas, resultam em maiores deformações para o grupo de estacas, ante comparadas com o equivalente de soma da capacidade individual de cada estaca (Chaudhry, 1994). Deste comportamento, deriva-se o chamado efeito de grupo, que age como um redutor da eficiência total das estacas. Através de modelos numéricos tridimensionais, avaliou-se o efeito de espaçamento entre estacas em solo natural, onde fatores de eficiência do grupo foram propostos. O comportamento de estacas carregadas lateralmente é conhecido por ter seu comportamento diretamente relacionado com as características da parte superior do solo. Recomendações feitas há mais de 30 anos já lidavam com este comportamento {e.g. Simons eMenzies (1975); Broms (1972)}, e tratavam com soluções que melhoravam a capacidade de carga lateral, com a substituição da parte superior do solo por um material mais rígido. Embora estas soluções melhorassem a capacidade de carga lateral, a técnica reflete uma prática de substituição de material. Neste trabalho, uma técnica de melhoramento de solo, lidando com areia cimentada é apresentada, estudando numericamente o comportamento de grupos de estacas submetidos a carregamentos laterais. As conclusões apontam fatores de eficiência próximos a unidade em espaçamentos superiores a 6 diâmetros, porém com a tendência a inexistir somente em espaçamentos superiores a 10 diâmetros. A inserção da camada de solo cimento no topo do grupo de estaca, mostrou uma expressiva melhora de seu comportamento, eliminando por total a perda de eficiência devido ao efeito de grupo. / The soil-pile set when subjected to lateral loads is characterized by a non-linear behavior. The stress distribution on the soil near the pile decays rapidly in magnitude with radial distance, but for closely spaced piles within a group, these yielded zones of the soil around individual piles overlap, forming larger yielded zones in the soil surrounding the pile group. The interaction arising due to overlapping of these yielded zones results in a larger deflection for the group of piles before the lateral resistance equivalent to that for a single pile (Chaudhry, 1994). Based on this behavior, the group effect is derived, which acts as a reducer of the piles efficiency. Through tridimensional numerical models, the effects of the pile spacing in natural soil were evaluated, and group efficiency factors had been proposed. The behavior of laterally loaded piles is well known to be straightly related to characteristics of the upper part of the soil. Recommendations of over 30 years in past already dealt with this behavior {e.g. Simons and Menzies (1975); Broms (1972)}, and treated with solutions that improved the lateral resistance, by substituting the upper part of the soil with a more rigid material. Besides those solutions improved the lateral resistance, the technique reflects a practice of material replacement. Here, a ground improvement technique, dealing with cemented sand is presented, studying numerically the behavior of piles subjected to lateral forces. Conclusions shows group efficiency factors close to unity on spacing larger than 6 diameters, but tending to disappear only on spacing larger than 10 diameters. The insertion of a soil cement layer on the top of the pile group has shown an expressive improvement on its behavior, eliminating the loss of efficiency due to the group effect.

O conjunto estaca-solo submetido a carregamentos horizontais é caracterizado por um comportamento não-linear. A propagação das tensões no solo próximo à estaca decai rapidamente em função do espaçamento, porém para estacas próximas, caracterizando um grupo de estacas, pode haver uma sobreposição de tensões, gerando zonas com tensões elevadas, que formam áreas de plastificação maiores. A interação da sobreposição destas zonas plastificadas, resultam em maiores deformações para o grupo de estacas, ante comparadas com o equivalente de soma da capacidade individual de cada estaca (Chaudhry, 1994). Deste comportamento, deriva-se o chamado efeito de grupo, que age como um redutor da eficiência total das estacas. Através de modelos numéricos tridimensionais, avaliou-se o efeito de espaçamento entre estacas em solo natural, onde fatores de eficiência do grupo foram propostos. O comportamento de estacas carregadas lateralmente é conhecido por ter seu comportamento diretamente relacionado com as características da parte superior do solo. Recomendações feitas há mais de 30 anos já lidavam com este comportamento {e.g. Simons eMenzies (1975); Broms (1972)}, e tratavam com soluções que melhoravam a capacidade de carga lateral, com a substituição da parte superior do solo por um material mais rígido. Embora estas soluções melhorassem a capacidade de carga lateral, a técnica reflete uma prática de substituição de material. Neste trabalho, uma técnica de melhoramento de solo, lidando com areia cimentada é apresentada, estudando numericamente o comportamento de grupos de estacas submetidos a carregamentos laterais. As conclusões apontam fatores de eficiência próximos a unidade em espaçamentos superiores a 6 diâmetros, porém com a tendência a inexistir somente em espaçamentos superiores a 10 diâmetros. A inserção da camada de solo cimento no topo do grupo de estaca, mostrou uma expressiva melhora de seu comportamento, eliminando por total a perda de eficiência devido ao efeito de grupo. / The soil-pile set when subjected to lateral loads is characterized by a non-linear behavior. The stress distribution on the soil near the pile decays rapidly in magnitude with radial distance, but for closely spaced piles within a group, these yielded zones of the soil around individual piles overlap, forming larger yielded zones in the soil surrounding the pile group. The interaction arising due to overlapping of these yielded zones results in a larger deflection for the group of piles before the lateral resistance equivalent to that for a single pile (Chaudhry, 1994). Based on this behavior, the group effect is derived, which acts as a reducer of the piles efficiency. Through tridimensional numerical models, the effects of the pile spacing in natural soil were evaluated, and group efficiency factors had been proposed. The behavior of laterally loaded piles is well known to be straightly related to characteristics of the upper part of the soil. Recommendations of over 30 years in past already dealt with this behavior {e.g. Simons and Menzies (1975); Broms (1972)}, and treated with solutions that improved the lateral resistance, by substituting the upper part of the soil with a more rigid material. Besides those solutions improved the lateral resistance, the technique reflects a practice of material replacement. Here, a ground improvement technique, dealing with cemented sand is presented, studying numerically the behavior of piles subjected to lateral forces. Conclusions shows group efficiency factors close to unity on spacing larger than 6 diameters, but tending to disappear only on spacing larger than 10 diameters. The insertion of a soil cement layer on the top of the pile group has shown an expressive improvement on its behavior, eliminating the loss of efficiency due to the group effect.

The laterally-loaded pile has long been a topic of research interest. Several models of the soil surrounding a pile have been developed for simulation of lateral pile behavior, ranging from simple spring and dashpot models to sophisticated three-dimensional finite-element models. However, results from the available pile-soil models are not accurate due to inherent approximations or constraints. For the springs and dashpots representation, the real and imaginary stiffness are calculated by idealizing the soil domain as a series of plane-strain slices leading to unrealistic pile behavior at low frequencies while the three-dimensional finite-element analysis is very computationally demanding. Therefore, this dissertation research seeks to contribute toward procedures that are computationally cost-effective while accuracy of the computed response is maintained identical or close to that of the three-dimensional finite-element solution. Based on the fact that purely-elastic soil displacement variations in azimuthal direction are known, the surrounding soil can be formulated in terms of an equivalent one-dimensional model leading to a significant reduction of computational cost. The pile with conventional soil-slice model will be explored first. Next, models with shear stresses between soil slices, including and neglecting the soil vertical displacement, are investigated. Excellent agreement of results from the proposed models with three-dimensional finite-element solutions can be achieved with only small additional computational cost. / text

Bridges often use pile foundations behind MSE walls to help resist lateral loading from seismic and thermal expansion and contraction loads. Overdesign of pile spacing and sizes occur owing to a lack of design code guidance for piles behind an MSE wall. However, space constraints necessitate the installation of piles near the wall. Full scale lateral load tests were conducted on piles behind an MSE wall. This study involves the testing of four HP12X74 H-piles and four HSS12X12X5/16 square piles. The H-piles were tested with ribbed strip soil reinforcement at a wall height of 15 feet, and the square piles were tested with welded wire reinforcement at a wall height of 20 feet. The H-piles were spaced from the back face of the MSE wall at pile diameters 4.5, 3.2, 2.5, and 2.2. The square piles were spaced at pile diameters 5.7, 4.2, 3.1, and 2.1. Testing was based on a displacement control method where load increments were applied every 0.25 inches up to three inches of pile deflection. It was concluded that piles placed closer than 3.9 pile diameters have a reduction in their lateral resistance. P-multipliers were back-calculated in LPILE from the load-deflection curves obtained from the tests. The p-multipliers were found to be 1.0, 0.85, 0.60, and 0.73 for the H-piles spaced at 4.5, 3.2, 2.5, and 2.2 pile diameters, respectively. The p-multipliers for the square piles were found to be 1.0, 0.77, 0.63, and 0.57 for piles spaced at 5.7, 4.2, 3.1, and 2.1 pile diameters, respectively. An equation was developed to estimate p-multipliers versus pile distance behind the wall. These p-multipliers account for reduced soil resistance, and decrease linearly with distance for piles placed closer than 3.9 pile diameters. Measurements were also taken of the force induced in the soil reinforcement. A statistical analysis was performed to develop an equation that could predict the maximum induced reinforcement load. The main parameters that went into this equation were the lateral pile load, transverse distance from the reinforcement to the pile center normalized by the pile diameter, spacing from the pile center to the wall normalized by the pile diameter, vertical stress, and reinforcement length to height ratio where the height included the equivalent height of the surcharge. The multiple regression equations account for 76% of the variation in observed tensile force for the ribbed strip reinforcement, and 77% of the variation for the welded wire reinforcement. The tensile force was found to increase in the reinforcement as the pile spacing decreased, transverse spacing from the pile decreased, and as the lateral load increased.

The lateral resistance of pile foundations is typically based on the performance of round piles even though other pile types are used. Due to lack of data there is a certain level of uncertainty when designing pile foundations other than round piles for lateral loading. Theoretical analyses have suggested that square sections will have more lateral resistance due to the increased side shear resistance, no test results have been available to substantiate the contention. Full-scale lateral load tests involving pile shapes such as circular, circular wrapped with high density polyethylene sheeting, square, H, and circular with a corrugated metal sleeve have been performed considering the influence of soil-pile interaction on lateral load resistance. The load test results, which can be summarized as a p-y curve, show higher soil resistance from the H and square sections after accounting for differences in the moment of inertia for the different pile sections. The increased soil resistance can generally be accounted for using a p-multiplier approach with a value of approximately 1.25 for square or 1.2 for H piles relative to circular piles. It has been determined that high density polyethylene sheeting provides little if any reduction in the lateral resistance when wrapped around a circular pile. Circular piles with a corrugated metal sleeve respond to lateral loading with higher values of lateral resistance than independent circular piles in the same soil.

A series of static lateral load tests were conducted on a group of fifteen piles arranged in a 3x5 pattern. The piles were placed at a center-to-center spacing of 3.92 pile diameters. A single isolated pile was also tested for comparison to the group response. The subsurface profile consisted of cohesive layers of soft to medium consistency underlain by interbedded layers of sands and fine-grained soils. The piles were instrumented to measure pile-head deflection, rotation, and load, as well as strain versus pile depth.