Dois estudos envolvendo processos ecológicos de decomposição foliar e colonização por macroinvertebrados foram realizados em três nascentes do bioma Pampa. O primeiro deles questionou se as folhas podem ter processos diferenciados quando estão misturadas, ou seja, se há efeito aditivo de uma folha sobre as outras e se a fauna decompositora seleciona recursos na forma desse composto heterogêneo. Para tanto, quatro espécies mais comuns da mata de galeria desses riachos foram coletadas e incubadas em bolsas-de-folhiço. A taxa de decomposição das folhas quando misturadas não é diferente da média de todas as espécies isoladas, indicando que não existe efeito de uma espécie sobre as outras. A colonização de macroinvertebrados não respondeu a diferenças dos detritos, tanto para abundância quanto para composição da fauna, indicando que as morfoespécies não têm preferência por tipos de folhas. Em relação aos grupos tróficos funcionais, não existe seleção entre os diferentes detritos - mesmo quando misturados - mas sim um forte padrão de sucessão no tempo. Herbívoros e omnívoros possuem maior freqüência nas primeiras etapas do processo, seguidos de detritívoros e carnívoros mais nas etapas finais. Já o segundo estudo se propõe a investigar se a presença de folhas de Eucalyptus saligna (exótica) junto às de nativas tem efeito na taxa de decomposição total da mistura em resposta as suas diferentes pressões de seleção, como por exemplo, seus metabólitos secundários. A taxa de decomposição tanto de E. saligna, quanto dessas folhas misturadas às nativas, é considerada lenta, sendo que folhas de E. saligna isoladas foi a mais rápida, ficando no limite ente lenta a intermediária. A taxa de decomposição do tratamento nativas + E. saligna foi diferente daquela esperada pela média de todas as espécies isoladas (nativas + exótica). A densidade de macroinvertebrados foi diferente entre folhas de E. saligna e desta misturada às nativas, sendo a maior riqueza de morfoespécies associada às folhas da espécie exótica. Não há padrões quanto à estrutura da assembléia de macroinvertebrados associados às diferentes folhas, e nem entre os tempos. A mesma falta de agrupamento ocorre para os grupos funcionais. E. saligna obteve uma taxa de decomposição mais acelerada provavelmente por apresentar baixo teor de lignina e, ainda, pela rapidez com que geralmente os polifenóis são lixiviados. O esperado para a decomposição do tratamento nativas + E. saligna foi uma taxa maior daquela observada, possivelmente porque as folhas nativas apresentam uma estrutura tecidual mais íntegra, providenciando uma desaceleração da taxa de decomposição das folhas de eucalipto na mistura. Portanto, tanto o processo de decomposição quanto a colonização de macroinvertebrados do tratamento de nativas sob influência da exótica se deu mais em função das espécies nativas ali presentes. / Two studies involving ecological processes of leaf decomposition and macroinvertebrate colonization were performed on three headwater streams of the Pampa biome. The first verified if the leaves may have different decomposition process when they are mixed, in other words, if there is additive effect of a film on the other, and if the fauna selects resources in the form of this heterogeneous compound. To achieve that, the four most common species of the gallery forest of these streams were collected and placed in litter-bags. The leaf breakdown rate when mixed is not different from the average of all species isolated, indicating that there is no effect of one species over the others. The colonization of macroinvertebrates did not respond to differences of detritus, both to the abundance and for fauna composition, indicating that the morphospecies have no preference for the leaves kind. Regarding the functional feed groups, there is no selection among the different debris - even when mixed - but a strong pattern of temporal succession. Herbivores and omnivores have higher frequency in the early stages of the decomposition followed by detritivores and carnivores in the final stages. The second study aims to investigate whether the presence of Eucalyptus saligna (exotic) plus native leaves affect the decomposition rate of the mixture since these leaves have experienced different selection pressures and therefore have different mechanisms of decomposition, for example, have developed different secondary metabolites. The decomposition rate of both E. saligna, and these leaves mixed with native, were considered slow, but the E. saligna leaves alone had the fastest decomposition rate, being in the limit between slow and intermediate. The leaf breakdown rate of native + E. saligna was different from that expected by the average of the isolated species (native + exotic). The density of macroinvertebrates was different between of E. saligna and native plus eucalypt leaves, with the greatest richness of morphospecies associated with the leaves of the exotic one. There were no standards in the assembly of macroinvertebrates associated with the different leaves, or between times. The same lack of clustering occurs for the functional feed groups. E. saligna obtained a faster decay rate probably because of its low lignin content, and also the speed with which the polyphenols are generally leached. The expected for the decomposition rate of native + E. saligna was higher than the observed, possibly because the leaves have a native tissue structure more fully, providing a deceleration in the decomposition rate of eucalyptus leaves in the mix. Therefore, both the process of decomposition and colonization by macroinvertebrates under the influence of the exotic, were more associated with the presence of the native species.

Dois estudos envolvendo processos ecológicos de decomposição foliar e colonização por macroinvertebrados foram realizados em três nascentes do bioma Pampa. O primeiro deles questionou se as folhas podem ter processos diferenciados quando estão misturadas, ou seja, se há efeito aditivo de uma folha sobre as outras e se a fauna decompositora seleciona recursos na forma desse composto heterogêneo. Para tanto, quatro espécies mais comuns da mata de galeria desses riachos foram coletadas e incubadas em bolsas-de-folhiço. A taxa de decomposição das folhas quando misturadas não é diferente da média de todas as espécies isoladas, indicando que não existe efeito de uma espécie sobre as outras. A colonização de macroinvertebrados não respondeu a diferenças dos detritos, tanto para abundância quanto para composição da fauna, indicando que as morfoespécies não têm preferência por tipos de folhas. Em relação aos grupos tróficos funcionais, não existe seleção entre os diferentes detritos - mesmo quando misturados - mas sim um forte padrão de sucessão no tempo. Herbívoros e omnívoros possuem maior freqüência nas primeiras etapas do processo, seguidos de detritívoros e carnívoros mais nas etapas finais. Já o segundo estudo se propõe a investigar se a presença de folhas de Eucalyptus saligna (exótica) junto às de nativas tem efeito na taxa de decomposição total da mistura em resposta as suas diferentes pressões de seleção, como por exemplo, seus metabólitos secundários. A taxa de decomposição tanto de E. saligna, quanto dessas folhas misturadas às nativas, é considerada lenta, sendo que folhas de E. saligna isoladas foi a mais rápida, ficando no limite ente lenta a intermediária. A taxa de decomposição do tratamento nativas + E. saligna foi diferente daquela esperada pela média de todas as espécies isoladas (nativas + exótica). A densidade de macroinvertebrados foi diferente entre folhas de E. saligna e desta misturada às nativas, sendo a maior riqueza de morfoespécies associada às folhas da espécie exótica. Não há padrões quanto à estrutura da assembléia de macroinvertebrados associados às diferentes folhas, e nem entre os tempos. A mesma falta de agrupamento ocorre para os grupos funcionais. E. saligna obteve uma taxa de decomposição mais acelerada provavelmente por apresentar baixo teor de lignina e, ainda, pela rapidez com que geralmente os polifenóis são lixiviados. O esperado para a decomposição do tratamento nativas + E. saligna foi uma taxa maior daquela observada, possivelmente porque as folhas nativas apresentam uma estrutura tecidual mais íntegra, providenciando uma desaceleração da taxa de decomposição das folhas de eucalipto na mistura. Portanto, tanto o processo de decomposição quanto a colonização de macroinvertebrados do tratamento de nativas sob influência da exótica se deu mais em função das espécies nativas ali presentes. / Two studies involving ecological processes of leaf decomposition and macroinvertebrate colonization were performed on three headwater streams of the Pampa biome. The first verified if the leaves may have different decomposition process when they are mixed, in other words, if there is additive effect of a film on the other, and if the fauna selects resources in the form of this heterogeneous compound. To achieve that, the four most common species of the gallery forest of these streams were collected and placed in litter-bags. The leaf breakdown rate when mixed is not different from the average of all species isolated, indicating that there is no effect of one species over the others. The colonization of macroinvertebrates did not respond to differences of detritus, both to the abundance and for fauna composition, indicating that the morphospecies have no preference for the leaves kind. Regarding the functional feed groups, there is no selection among the different debris - even when mixed - but a strong pattern of temporal succession. Herbivores and omnivores have higher frequency in the early stages of the decomposition followed by detritivores and carnivores in the final stages. The second study aims to investigate whether the presence of Eucalyptus saligna (exotic) plus native leaves affect the decomposition rate of the mixture since these leaves have experienced different selection pressures and therefore have different mechanisms of decomposition, for example, have developed different secondary metabolites. The decomposition rate of both E. saligna, and these leaves mixed with native, were considered slow, but the E. saligna leaves alone had the fastest decomposition rate, being in the limit between slow and intermediate. The leaf breakdown rate of native + E. saligna was different from that expected by the average of the isolated species (native + exotic). The density of macroinvertebrates was different between of E. saligna and native plus eucalypt leaves, with the greatest richness of morphospecies associated with the leaves of the exotic one. There were no standards in the assembly of macroinvertebrates associated with the different leaves, or between times. The same lack of clustering occurs for the functional feed groups. E. saligna obtained a faster decay rate probably because of its low lignin content, and also the speed with which the polyphenols are generally leached. The expected for the decomposition rate of native + E. saligna was higher than the observed, possibly because the leaves have a native tissue structure more fully, providing a deceleration in the decomposition rate of eucalyptus leaves in the mix. Therefore, both the process of decomposition and colonization by macroinvertebrates under the influence of the exotic, were more associated with the presence of the native species.

Dois estudos envolvendo processos ecológicos de decomposição foliar e colonização por macroinvertebrados foram realizados em três nascentes do bioma Pampa. O primeiro deles questionou se as folhas podem ter processos diferenciados quando estão misturadas, ou seja, se há efeito aditivo de uma folha sobre as outras e se a fauna decompositora seleciona recursos na forma desse composto heterogêneo. Para tanto, quatro espécies mais comuns da mata de galeria desses riachos foram coletadas e incubadas em bolsas-de-folhiço. A taxa de decomposição das folhas quando misturadas não é diferente da média de todas as espécies isoladas, indicando que não existe efeito de uma espécie sobre as outras. A colonização de macroinvertebrados não respondeu a diferenças dos detritos, tanto para abundância quanto para composição da fauna, indicando que as morfoespécies não têm preferência por tipos de folhas. Em relação aos grupos tróficos funcionais, não existe seleção entre os diferentes detritos - mesmo quando misturados - mas sim um forte padrão de sucessão no tempo. Herbívoros e omnívoros possuem maior freqüência nas primeiras etapas do processo, seguidos de detritívoros e carnívoros mais nas etapas finais. Já o segundo estudo se propõe a investigar se a presença de folhas de Eucalyptus saligna (exótica) junto às de nativas tem efeito na taxa de decomposição total da mistura em resposta as suas diferentes pressões de seleção, como por exemplo, seus metabólitos secundários. A taxa de decomposição tanto de E. saligna, quanto dessas folhas misturadas às nativas, é considerada lenta, sendo que folhas de E. saligna isoladas foi a mais rápida, ficando no limite ente lenta a intermediária. A taxa de decomposição do tratamento nativas + E. saligna foi diferente daquela esperada pela média de todas as espécies isoladas (nativas + exótica). A densidade de macroinvertebrados foi diferente entre folhas de E. saligna e desta misturada às nativas, sendo a maior riqueza de morfoespécies associada às folhas da espécie exótica. Não há padrões quanto à estrutura da assembléia de macroinvertebrados associados às diferentes folhas, e nem entre os tempos. A mesma falta de agrupamento ocorre para os grupos funcionais. E. saligna obteve uma taxa de decomposição mais acelerada provavelmente por apresentar baixo teor de lignina e, ainda, pela rapidez com que geralmente os polifenóis são lixiviados. O esperado para a decomposição do tratamento nativas + E. saligna foi uma taxa maior daquela observada, possivelmente porque as folhas nativas apresentam uma estrutura tecidual mais íntegra, providenciando uma desaceleração da taxa de decomposição das folhas de eucalipto na mistura. Portanto, tanto o processo de decomposição quanto a colonização de macroinvertebrados do tratamento de nativas sob influência da exótica se deu mais em função das espécies nativas ali presentes. / Two studies involving ecological processes of leaf decomposition and macroinvertebrate colonization were performed on three headwater streams of the Pampa biome. The first verified if the leaves may have different decomposition process when they are mixed, in other words, if there is additive effect of a film on the other, and if the fauna selects resources in the form of this heterogeneous compound. To achieve that, the four most common species of the gallery forest of these streams were collected and placed in litter-bags. The leaf breakdown rate when mixed is not different from the average of all species isolated, indicating that there is no effect of one species over the others. The colonization of macroinvertebrates did not respond to differences of detritus, both to the abundance and for fauna composition, indicating that the morphospecies have no preference for the leaves kind. Regarding the functional feed groups, there is no selection among the different debris - even when mixed - but a strong pattern of temporal succession. Herbivores and omnivores have higher frequency in the early stages of the decomposition followed by detritivores and carnivores in the final stages. The second study aims to investigate whether the presence of Eucalyptus saligna (exotic) plus native leaves affect the decomposition rate of the mixture since these leaves have experienced different selection pressures and therefore have different mechanisms of decomposition, for example, have developed different secondary metabolites. The decomposition rate of both E. saligna, and these leaves mixed with native, were considered slow, but the E. saligna leaves alone had the fastest decomposition rate, being in the limit between slow and intermediate. The leaf breakdown rate of native + E. saligna was different from that expected by the average of the isolated species (native + exotic). The density of macroinvertebrates was different between of E. saligna and native plus eucalypt leaves, with the greatest richness of morphospecies associated with the leaves of the exotic one. There were no standards in the assembly of macroinvertebrates associated with the different leaves, or between times. The same lack of clustering occurs for the functional feed groups. E. saligna obtained a faster decay rate probably because of its low lignin content, and also the speed with which the polyphenols are generally leached. The expected for the decomposition rate of native + E. saligna was higher than the observed, possibly because the leaves have a native tissue structure more fully, providing a deceleration in the decomposition rate of eucalyptus leaves in the mix. Therefore, both the process of decomposition and colonization by macroinvertebrates under the influence of the exotic, were more associated with the presence of the native species.

Thesis (Ph. D. Agric. (Plant Production)) --University of Limpopo, 2019 / Moringa oleifera is a multipurpose fast growing tree which is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions of the world due to its numerous benefits. The benefits include medicinal use, industrial use, soil fertility, water purification, climate change mitigation as well as of nutritional value for humans and livestock. Recently, many areas globally have been rendered vulnerable to climate change as well as food insecurity. Climate change increases irregularities of rainfall and temperature patterns in semi-arid conditions. One practical way to address this challenge in the agricultural sector is to introduce more trees crop species which are found to be more tolerant than annual crops under harsh growing conditions. Moringa is one species that could be considered under variable climatic conditions for positive outcomes through climate change adaptation and mitigation as well as life sustenance against food insecurity threats. Production of moringa in South Africa is exclusively for leaf processing and consumption. To date, there is no documented information available about seed and oil yield production of moringa mainly in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. The aim of the study was to generate knowledge on moringa growth, nutritional composition, seed and oil yield production as well as its response to drought through gaseous exchange parameters, as influenced by plant density under diverse agro-ecological locations in Limpopo Province. The study was conducted in the Limpopo Province, South Africa, from November 2013 to January 2016. The study area falls within the semi-region which is characterized by low and erratic rainfall which predominately falls in summer as well as extremely low or high temperatures. A survey was conducted from November 2013 to September 2014 in five districts of the Limpopo Province. Focus group discussion, questionnaires and field observations were used for data collection. A total of 150 moringa growers formed part of the focus group and a questionnaire was administered to only thirty-one farmers, who constitute the population of farmers producing moringa within an area of 0.25 ha or more. A second study was conducted at two experimental sites in the Limpopo Province of northern part of South Africa to evaluate for the first time, the effect of plant density and cutting interval on biomass production and chemical composition of moringa grown under two diverse climatic conditions. Four different planting densities (435 000, 300 000, 200 000 and 100 000 plants/ha) were arranged in a randomized complete block design and experimental samples were replicated four times. A third study was conducted over two years to achieve additional objectives which included evaluation of gaseous exchange, biomass, seed, and oil yield. Untreated seeds of Moringa oleifera were used for establishing the trial at densities of 5 000, 2 500, 1 667 and 1 250 plants ha-1, with eight replicates. The same study was used to achieve the objective on gaseous exchange in comparison with other two naturally growing tree species of mopane (Colophospermum mopane) and marula (Sclerocarya birrea) trees growing within the moringa trial vicinity. The study was further used to evaluate the effect of planting density on biomass, grain, oil yield production and nutritional composition of Moringa oleifera trees. The last part of the study was carried out in the five districts of the Limpopo Province to determine the influence of soil physical and chemical properties on the nutritional composition of moringa leaves. The farms that were identified during the survey were also used to achieve other objectives of the study. In order to determine soil and leaf nutritional composition, soil samples were collected and analyzed for physical and chemical properties. The harvested leaves were dried at room temperature and their nutritional compositions were determined using standard methods. Findings from the studies revealed the following: The survey indicated that there are potential moringa farmers in all the districts of the province, with the intention to commercialize the tree. Majority of farmers grow moringa on 0.251.0 ha and have been producing the crop for the past 2 years. The study on planting density and cutting frequency revealed satisfactory nutritional composition in the leaves across the cutting frequencies and that, an increase in the plant density led to enhanced biomass production. The study on the monthly and seasonal gaseous exchange revealed significant differences in net photosynthetic rate, transpiration, sub-stomatal CO2 and stomatal conductance. However, planting densities of Moringa oleifera had no significant effect on all the gaseous exchange parameters measured. In a comparison of moringa with other tree species growing in the vicinity of moringa, the results differed significantly in gaseous exchange. The highest activity in photosynthetic rate (A), stomatal conductance (gs), transpiration rate (E) and sub-stomatal CO2 (Ci), as well as higher stomatal density, was found in moringa. The findings from the biomass, seed yield and oil yield study showed that the increase in measured biomass, seed and oil yield increased with increasing planting density. However, seed oil concentration was non-significant. Findings from the ecology study revealed that moringa improved soil nutritional composition; mainly in areas where the trees were more than three years old as compared to control soils where moringa had not been planted. The soil nutritional composition differed with soil textural classes with the clay soils recording higher nutrient ion values. The study revealed that moringa can be produced in many locations of the Limpopo Province without negatively affecting leaf nutritional composition. Moringa leaves contain high level of nutrients even under marginal production areas irrespective of the planting density. A population of 5000 plants ha-1 can be used for seed and oil yield production where temperatures are favourable for improved farmers’ livelihoods. The results strongly showed with no doubt, the superiority of moringa in capturing more carbon among the three species. Moringa maintained good leaf yield even under drought condition, which is an indication of its potential to act as a good sink for carbon dioxide absorption. It can, therefore, be recommended for many parts of Limpopo Province for climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies and food security. KEY CONCEPTS: agro-ecology, biomass, climate change, commercialization, drought, food security, gas exchange, leaf chemical composition, location, Moringa oleifera, oil, seed, soil textural class, survey, trees, weather, yield