The purpose of my study is to investigate teachers’ opinions about learning difficulties in mathematics. I have read relevant literature on this subject. I have conducted interviews with seven class teachers, one special-needs teacher, a psychologist and one special-needs teachers who specifically worked with investigations concerning pupils with difficulties in mathematics. The result of my study shows that learning difficulties in mathematics can/might be prevented if children in pre-school are introduced to mathematics as early as possible. This should be done in a delightful way in their daily activities and while there are playing. I didn’t find any complete method to help children with mathematics difficulties in compulsory school. But a good teaching method is to vary the teaching, strengthen pupil’s self-confidence and “talk mathematics”. It is important to make mathematics more understandable. One of my conclusions is that there is a lack of research about learning difficulties in mathematics. Another conclusion from the literature is that it is hard to distinguish between different kinds of difficulties in mathematics. / Syftet med min studie är att undersöka pedagogers syn på elevers matematiksvårigheter. För att få svar på mina frågor har jag läst relevant litteratur i ämnet samt intervjuat sju lärare, en speciallärare samt utredningspersonal. Resultatet av undersökningen visar att man redan i förskolan genom leken och i det vardagliga arbetet med barnen bör arbeta med matematik för att förebygga matematiksvårigheter. Jag fann ingen färdig metod att använda i grundskolan för att avhjälpa matematiksvårigheter. Det man kan göra är att variera undervisningen, stärka självförtroendet och samtala om matematik för att matematiken ska bli mer begriplig för elever med svårigheter. En av mina slutsatser är att det saknas forskning om matematiksvårigheter. En annan slutsats är att det finns litteratur i ämnet men det är ändå svårt att skilja de olika matematiksvårigheterna åt.

Thesis (M.S.)--Boston University / The purpose of this study is to ascertain whether the learning difficulties of the child with normal or superior intellectual capacity are related to the mother's emotional problems; further, whether the problems of the mothers studied have a common element; and, finally, whether any general conelusions can be drawn for treatment of mothers whose children have school learning problems . In this study school learning problems are cases where either the child is repeating a grade or is having a difficult time keeping up with his class . The study is based upon an examination of closed cases at the Douglas A. Thom Clinic for Children, Inc., Boston, Massachusetts where the referral problem of the child was that of a learning dirficulty. An examination of the mother- child relationship in these cases may be meaningful in deriving a hypothesis around this problem. Such an examination may be further useful in planning the casework technique or treatment with mothers whose children have such learning problems.

The purpose of this problem is to make a comparative study between Gregg Shorthand and Thomas Natural Shorthand. The problem is to compare the learning difficulties of the two systems, and to determine which system is easier to read and write by comparing the rules and principles and the writing fluency.

This narrative inquiry examines the stories told by eight young New Zealanders who have experienced specific difficulties with learning. At the time of being interviewed, they were aged from 9-14 years and participating in regular school classes. For the purposes of the study, being a student was identified as a key occupational role and failing to achieve tasks associated with this role was viewed as failure to achieve role competency. The issue of learning difficulties has been extensively researched but rarely from the perspective of young people. A primary goal of the study was to obtain young people's perceptions of the experience of learning difficulties. This is consistent with international moves to obtain the views of young people through research. Narrative interviewing procedures were used and participants were invited to talk about the things they enjoyed doing and felt they are good at doing, as well as the things they had trouble doing. They proved to be capable informants and provided a rich range of narrative data. Interviews were audio taped, transcribed and interview transcripts were synthesised into a story format. Each participant had the opportunity to check their story and give their final consent to its use as data in this thesis. As part of the analytical process, core narratives were constructed to capture the essence of each participant's story, their unique narrative voice, relationship with others and fundamental message. These narratives are presented in full, introducing participants as characters in their own story and revealing the nature of the stories told. In addition, thematic narratives drawn from the stories have been collated into three key categories, which relate to self and learning efforts, relationship with the social world and being occupational. The narrative analysis found that learning difficulties occurred as a negative interruption in the progressive course of participants' story, with the potential to compromise their sense of identity and well-being. However, the study also found that when participants chose to characterise themselves in relation to occupations or roles in which they felt most successful, they were able to express a more positive and holistic identity than that of being "learning disabled". Furthermore, in the context of an occupational narrative that included their talents and abilities, learning difficulties were not necessarily the determining factor in how life was for them or where their lives might go. The implication of the study's findings relate to the importance for young people of not only experiencing competency in significant occupations and roles, but also being seen to be competent. This underpins a positive sense of identity and well-being, which is likely to link to their future. They need to understand for themselves and for those around them to understand, that it is possible to be intelligent yet have trouble with basic numeracy and literacy skills. Empathetic adults have a vital role to play in providing the information, opportunities and supportive context in which young people develop an understanding of their occupational competencies and become competent human beings. There is a place for further narrative research with young New Zealanders; there are many stories from other perspectives yet to be told. Ongoing research conducted through an occupational lens is needed to understand the way in which young people with learning difficulties develop, or fail to develop, an understanding of themselves as competent occupational beings and how this supports or constrains their transition through adolescence into adulthood.

This narrative inquiry examines the stories told by eight young New Zealanders who have experienced specific difficulties with learning. At the time of being interviewed, they were aged from 9-14 years and participating in regular school classes. For the purposes of the study, being a student was identified as a key occupational role and failing to achieve tasks associated with this role was viewed as failure to achieve role competency. The issue of learning difficulties has been extensively researched but rarely from the perspective of young people. A primary goal of the study was to obtain young people's perceptions of the experience of learning difficulties. This is consistent with international moves to obtain the views of young people through research. Narrative interviewing procedures were used and participants were invited to talk about the things they enjoyed doing and felt they are good at doing, as well as the things they had trouble doing. They proved to be capable informants and provided a rich range of narrative data. Interviews were audio taped, transcribed and interview transcripts were synthesised into a story format. Each participant had the opportunity to check their story and give their final consent to its use as data in this thesis. As part of the analytical process, core narratives were constructed to capture the essence of each participant's story, their unique narrative voice, relationship with others and fundamental message. These narratives are presented in full, introducing participants as characters in their own story and revealing the nature of the stories told. In addition, thematic narratives drawn from the stories have been collated into three key categories, which relate to self and learning efforts, relationship with the social world and being occupational. The narrative analysis found that learning difficulties occurred as a negative interruption in the progressive course of participants' story, with the potential to compromise their sense of identity and well-being. However, the study also found that when participants chose to characterise themselves in relation to occupations or roles in which they felt most successful, they were able to express a more positive and holistic identity than that of being "learning disabled". Furthermore, in the context of an occupational narrative that included their talents and abilities, learning difficulties were not necessarily the determining factor in how life was for them or where their lives might go. The implication of the study's findings relate to the importance for young people of not only experiencing competency in significant occupations and roles, but also being seen to be competent. This underpins a positive sense of identity and well-being, which is likely to link to their future. They need to understand for themselves and for those around them to understand, that it is possible to be intelligent yet have trouble with basic numeracy and literacy skills. Empathetic adults have a vital role to play in providing the information, opportunities and supportive context in which young people develop an understanding of their occupational competencies and become competent human beings. There is a place for further narrative research with young New Zealanders; there are many stories from other perspectives yet to be told. Ongoing research conducted through an occupational lens is needed to understand the way in which young people with learning difficulties develop, or fail to develop, an understanding of themselves as competent occupational beings and how this supports or constrains their transition through adolescence into adulthood.

The awareness that people with Down syndrome are at risk of dementia at a younger age, even in their forties or fifties, brings to the fore a group previously excluded from research. Literature documents the experiences of people with Down syndrome and, separately, that of people with dementia. This includes knowledge of individual experiences through self-advocacy, inclusion in service development, policy and research, and the drive for a more person-centred way of providing support. We do not have the same knowledge about the experience of individuals who have both Down syndrome and dementia. Research literature suggests that people with Down syndrome are already marginalised before a diagnosis of dementia, due to society’s interpretation of their intellectual disability. The first quantitative stage of this longitudinal, mixed method study demonstrates the awareness of carers and actions taken post-diagnosis, highlighting the social exclusion experienced by people with Down syndrome. The second more substantive, qualitative stage considers factors that impact on the experience of individuals with Down syndrome and dementia. My observation identifies factors that highlight the process of further social and cultural marginalisation after a diagnosis of dementia. Findings are initially based on a thematic analysis of my transcribed data to develop case studies, followed by cross case analysis. Emerging issues from both stages of the research suggest commonality of experience in relation to the lack of a shared diagnosis, lack of recognition of sense of Self or identity, failure to recognise the importance of adapting communication to enable social interaction, a readiness to define a person by their situation rather than as an individual, and my observations of the impact of staff. I suggest that care and support for people with Down syndrome and dementia is at a crossroads, with an absence of shared learning between intellectual disability services and dementia services. I demonstrate how far I have been able to synthesise my approach to methodology and methods of data collection to enable the inclusion of a group previously excluded from research, incorporating both verbal and non-verbal exchanges as dementia progressed. Despite individuals with Down syndrome and dementia not being visible in service development and policy, it has been evidenced that their participation in research is not only possible, it is essential, as this group continues to enjoy a longer life expectancy that brings with it an associated risk of dementia.

The research was carried out during a time when residential provision for people with learning difficulties in the north of Scotland was changing from being hospital based towards being community centred. The aim was to utilise an understanding of the dynamics of past provision to shed light upon present practice and planning for the future: focussing upon that form of ‘difference’ which has been given the name ‘learning difficulty’. The research utilised records, interviews, narratives and discussion groups to explore the experiences of providers of services, service users and those who were close to them. The research sought to go beyond description; to facilitate respondents in sharing their understanding of the organisation of care services and how it had an effect upon their life chances and self concept. The design of the research, which made use of multiple sources of evidence, was qualitative in its approach. It was undertaken within four ‘sites of interest’:  The archive or the historical record of provision at Lhangbyde Hospital..  Through semi structured interviews with ‘Providers’  A ‘Punters’ discussion forum located within a self advocacy group.  A set of ‘Intimate Narratives’. The method had its roots in constructivist, reflective and post modern currents of thought which confronted the difficulty inherent is making an epistemological distinction between what is out there in the world and the categories of meaning which are resident in the human mind. The goal was to produce texts which promoted dialogue rather than monologue, were evocative rather than definitive, In chapter 8 some ‘Intimate Narratives’ from the researcher’s own life experience as a father and as a facilitator and adviser within a self advocacy organisation were presented directly as stories of everyday experience. In the final two chapters of the thesis an attempt was made to synthesise the overall findings of the research, and to assess their implications for future policy and practice. In chapter 9, under the heading of ‘Reading the Chart: understanding the past and present as a foundation for future planning’ the findings from the four ‘sites of interest’ were gathered together under seven explanatory themes, with the section entitled ‘Gaining a Voice’ achieving an overall pre-eminence.. The last chapter in the thesis (Chapter 10), under the title of ‘The Future Course’ detailed a plan for change and development based on a synthesis of findings. In addition the role of future research in promoting change was examined. The thesis concluded with a ‘plain language’ summary of recommendations.

Mainstream education was declared by the government of Botswana as a priority for educating learners with special educational needs especially those with Learning Difficulties - LD since 1984. The Revised National Policy on Education (1994) articulates governments‟ commitment to the education of all children, advocating for an inclusive education as much as is feasible. This study is an exploration of what teachers do in their schools and/or classrooms to implement inclusive education particularly looking at how they understand curriculum, curriculum adaptations and what they do to differentiate for learners who have LD through their teaching. Six primary schools in urban, semi-urban and rural areas were purposively selected and data were collected through classroom observations, interviews and document analysis. Seventeen participants participated in the study. The findings reveal that teachers‟ conceptualization and understanding of inclusive education seemed not to fit within the national requirements of using learner-centred approaches. The findings also reveal that the teachers‟ conceptualisation and understanding of inclusive education seem embedded within the cultural concept of „botho‟ (respect for humanity), a discourse which takes into account accepting all individuals. Although participants embrace the concept of inclusive education, this seems to be on a theoretical basis since in practice it seems that learners who have LD were not given learning opportunities which allow them to participate in the teaching and learning process. Finally, participants identify some barriers such as an examination oriented curriculum, class sizes and lack of teachers‟ skills and knowledge as areas which hinder the implementation of inclusive education. The study challenges the traditional use of authoritarian approaches of teaching as one way of perpetuating exclusionary circumstances within Botswana schools as it leaves learners who have LD with little chance of accessing the curriculum. A dynamic constructive relationship between curriculum, teachers and learners is suggested, moving from „teaching the curriculum‟ to „understanding and developing inclusive curricula‟ within a social constructivist discourse.

Malawian physical science teachers (PSTs) perceive nuclear physics to be the most difficult physics topic. This study investigated: reasons PSTs would give for this perception, teaching strategies that some PSTs would use to address learning difficulties in nuclear physics, reasons the teachers would give for using certain strategies and nature of the PSTs’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) in nuclear physics. Assumptions of the interpretivist paradigm and the theoretical framework of PCK guided the data collection, organisation and analysis processes. Thirty teachers completed a questionnaire, which enabled me to identify PSTs who chose nuclear physics as the most difficult, difficult aspects of nuclear physics and reasons those aspects are difficult. Stratified purposive sampling was then used to choose four case teachers. I observed two lessons on nuclear physics for each case teacher by video recording them. I interviewed each case teacher before and after both lessons. I also interviewed a group of students after each lesson. Video recordings were discussed with the respective teachers. Some documents were collected. All interviews and video recordings were transcribed into text, coded using Atlas.ti 5.2 and analysed inductively. Content analysis was used with documents. Some learning difficulties surface during lessons and they mainly related to student conceptions, nature of concepts and mathematical manipulations. The case teachers could not anticipate most of them, irrespective of qualification. It would seem the teachers were hardly aware of lesson-specific difficulties. The case teachers used combinations of strategies that focused on transmission of information. The teachers hardly probed student thinking. Reasons given for strategies adopted revealed that qualified teachers emphasised only content while the under-qualified ones also emphasised pedagogy. iv Also qualified case teachers ascertained student understanding more frequently than the less qualified ones. Also one of the qualified teachers was able to articulate main ideas of the lessons, while the other three could hardly do so. I conclude that teachers with similar characteristics as those studied here need assistance to develop the following aspects of PCK in nuclear physics: awareness of learning difficulties, use of strategies that are based on student thinking and ability to articulate main ideas.

Previous studies have shown some students with good word recognition skills and high levels of reading fluency fail to comprehend what they read.This study examined the explicit teaching of the rule based Question Answer Response (QAR) strategies to overcome specific learning difficulties in reading comprehension. Case study methods were used on five Year 4 students in Western Australia who were at different developmental levels in reading comprehension.The study revealed that within the conceptual framework of the transactional model of reading, the Question Answer Response strategies were effective in improving literal, inferential, critical and creative comprehension at varying levels for each of the five students in the study. The strategies also proved to be an effective way to teach the resolution of anaphoric pronouns that are particularly problematic for students with poor comprehension.The study indicates that the teaching of reading comprehension skills to students with reading comprehension problems through explicit rule based instruction is an important component of classroom-based instruction in the literacy learning area.