Planococcus citri se considera una plaga importante de los cítricos en todo el mundo. El manejo de este fitófago se basa en los principios de la Producción Integrada, que requiere conocimientos precisos sobre la biología, ciclo estacional y comportamiento de las poblaciones de P. citri. Entre los años 1992 a 1998 se ha realizado un seguimiento de las poblaciones de P. citri y de sus enemigos naturales en diversas parcelas de cítricos tratadas y no tratadas con productos fitosanitarios. Estos seguimientos se han realizado tanto en diferentes partes del árbol como con trampas pegajosas con feromona sexual. En la zona de estudio, P. citri desarrolló cinco generaciones al año. La temperatura crítica de desarrollo y la integral térmica de P. citri fueron 8,3°C y 562,4°C-día, respectivamente. Las larvas de primera edad invadieron el cáliz de los frutos en los meses de mayo a julio, alcanzando en julio valores elevados en porcentaje de cálices invadidos, con una media del 72. P. citri invadió el fruto desde el cáliz a partir del mes de agosto, con una media de parcelas y años de un 22 de frutos atacados exteriormente. La población de P. citri fluctuó durante los años sucesivos, en parcelas no tratadas, manteniéndose entre un 10 y un 30 de frutos atacados. Los pesticidas organofosforados aplicados en primavera controlaron satisfactoriamente la población de P. citri. Hemos determinado que los umbrales de tratamiento son, en primavera, un 70 de cálices de los frutos ocupados y en agosto y septiembre, un 20 de frutos ocupados. La población de P. citri mostró una pauta de distribución agregativa bajo el cáliz de los frutos, sobre los frutos y en el tronco, con el índice de Taylor b de 1,45, 1,41 y 1,42 respectivamente. Se aconseja muestrear unos 130 frutos mediante un muestreo enumerativo en el caso de poblaciones bajas y medias, y 200 frutos mediante un muestreo binomial para poblaciones elevadas. El control biológico ejerció una función muy importante en la regulación de .... / Martínez Ferrer, MT. (2003). Biología y control del cotonet Planococcus citri (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) en huertos de cítricos [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/27775

Phenacoccus peruvianus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) is an invasive mealybug of Neotropical origin, first reported in the Mediterranean Basin in Almeria (Spain) in 1999. In the following years the mealybug spread into other Mediterranean regions and has also been recorded in Portugal and France, as well as in Sicily, Corsica and the Balearic Islands. Phenacoccus peruvianus is a polyphagous species and damages economically important ornamental plants. Since this was a relatively unknown species, during the first years of invasion, the mealybug was managed by the application of chemical treatments with wide-spectrum pesticides. However, the latest European directive on pesticide use reduces or even forbids pesticide applications in a wide range of urban green areas, giving significant priority to biological control (European Parliament and Council 2009). This thesis sets the basis for introducing biological control into a P. peruvianus management program in urban landscapes, focusing on its characterization, sampling, biology and control. In order to facilitate the identification of this and other mealybug species, we characterised 33 mealybug populations infesting crops and ornamental plants in Eastern Spain, using a combination of molecular and morphological techniques. This characterisation led to the identification of ten mealybug species and made routine identification possible through DNA sequencing or the use of derived species-specific molecular tools. The sequences obtained also add to the phylogenetic knowledge of the Pseudococcidae family and provide insight into the invasion history of some species. Phenacoccus peruvianus populations were high in bougainvillea plants during spring and summer, declining to almost undetectable levels in autumn and winter. The mealybug was mainly found in bracts and there were no significant migrations between plant strata. Phenacoccus peruvianus showed a high aggregated distribution on bracts, leaves and twigs. We recommend a binomial sampling of 200 leaves and an action threshold of 55% infested leaves for IPM purposes in urban landscapes. Its most abundant natural enemies were found to be the primary parasitoids Acerophagus n. sp. near coccois and Leptomastix epona Walker (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). We also identified several predator species from the Anthocoridae, Coccinellidae, Chamaemyiidae, and Chrysopidae families. Phenacoccus peruvianus populations were lower during the second and third year of the survey, coinciding with an increase in the parasitoid Acerophagus sp. populations, which displaced the native L. epona. Differential female offspring and resource preemption are discussed as the main reasons for this displacement. To obtain further information on the biology of the new parasitoid Acerophagus sp. we determined some traits of its reproductive and feeding strategies. Acerophagus sp. egg load reached its maximum when it was 5 days old with almost 30 mature eggs. Phenacoccus peruvianus second and third nymphal instars and adults were suitable for parasitism and efficient encapsulation was low (10.76 ± 0.31 %). The parasitoid always preferred older instars when different host instars were available. Acerophagus sp. developed as a solitary parasitoid in the second instar and as a gregarious parasitoid in older instars (2¿4 parasitoids per host). Moreover, it reproduced parthenogenetically and all the emerged offspring were females. Immature development lasted between 20 and 22 days at 25°C and 65% HR. Under these conditions, adults lived for longer than 20 days when fed on honey, but fewer than 3 days when fed on naturally occurring sugar sources (host honeydew and Bougainvillea glabra flowers). / Beltrà Ivars, A. (2014). Biology and management of the invasive mealybug Phenacoccus peruvianus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in urban landscapes [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/37233