Line intersect sampling (LIS) is a method used for quantifying post-harvest waste. It is often used by forest managers to quantify merchantable volume remaining on the cutover so that compensation may be exacted under stumpage contracts. The theory has been extensively studied and will produce an accurate measure of harvest waste given the basic theoretical assumptions that: all logs are cylindrical, occur horizontally, are randomly orientated and randomly distributed. When these assumptions are violated, the method is not biased, although precision decreases substantially. A computer simulation was completed to determine whether or not the LIS method is appropriate, given a clumped distribution of logs produced by processing at central sites in cutover before using a forwarder to extract to the landing. The software ArcGIS with the application ModelBuilder was used to produce the LIS Model for running LIS assessments. It was determined through simulation that the conventional LIS method is not appropriate given these harvesting methods, as a level of bias was found in sampling determining that the LIS method underestimated true volume. T-tests confirmed the significance of this bias. LIS volume estimates were not precise, with the range of estimates ranging from 0 m3/ha to double the true volume. An increase in sampling length by a third was found to increase precision by only a small amount. Therefore, it was determine that increased sampling is not worthwhile as the costs associated with it do not justify the small increase in precision.

Tuscany has suffered severe windstorms in the last five years, causing major damages to the forests. Quantifying the damage after these disturbances has been the main concern for authorities. The objective of this study was develop a new, cost effective methodology to estimate dead wood volumes post windthrow through remote sensing and GIS tools, testing a supervised photo-interpretation in combination with LIS and an unsupervised photo-interpretation called NCC through RGB images with 0.2 m GSD. Additionally, field-assessed were obtained as control data. The study area was conducted in the Tuscany region, where 10 areas were selected. The species affected were mostly conifers. The results obtained by the unsupervised were better than supervised, but both methods did not show statistically significant differences. The NCC method showed promising results, but mostly in big areas, where the results showed accurate volumes. On the other side, small areas are not suitable to be under NCC methods yet, due to the low accuracy obtained in the volumes in this study.

The objective of this study was to test the line intersect sampling (LIS) methodology using the design-based inference with stratified systematic sampling and two transect shapes: a straight line and a cross shape, both with three different lengths (100, 150, and 200 m) to estimate the number of coarse woody debris (CWD) elements, their volume, biomass and carbon stocks; by decay class; furthermore, we fit and select CWD biomass and carbon models. The study area includes two types of native forest in the State of São Paulo, Brazil: a Seasonal Semi-deciduous Forest (SSF) and a Cerrado sensu-stricto (CSS). Two strata were chosen in each area, and in each stratum ten sampling units were installed according to a systematic sampling protocol. Each sampling unit had one North- South line of 200 m superimposed over the other lengths (100 and 150 m) and three lines (one for each length) in the East-West direction forming the cross shapes, for a total 650 m per sampling unit. All CWD elements with a diameter _ 10 cm that crossed the transect were tallied. For each element, the diameter, length, perpendicular width, decay class, and (when possible) species was recorded. Disc samples were taken from each element, from which cylinder samples were extracted then oven dried to determine density. These cylinders were milled and analyzed to determine carbon content (%). The volume of each element was calculated by taking the difference between cross-sectional area and any hollowed area, then multiplying by the element\'s length. Biomass was calculated by multiplying volume values by density values, and carbon stocks were calculated by multiplying biomass by the carbon percentage factors computed via lab analysis. Total estimators were calculated by area and per hectare for the number of CWD elements, their volume, biomass, and carbon stocks. These estimators were calculated by stratum then combined across the entire sample population. The data from each sampling unit was also used to calculate the wood density and carbon concentration by decay class, as well as to fit linear and nonlinear models. For the SSF area, the most accurate transect design was the 200 m cross shaped; and for the CSS area was selected the 150 m cross shape. Both areas showed lower biomass values (1.3 and 6.7 Mg/ha for the CSS and SSF areas, respectively) than other studies in the Amazon Forest where CWD research has been conducted. In both areas, as the decay class increased (from least to most rotten material), wood density decreased, which follows the same pattern as other literature. Carbon concentration barely changed within decay classes. Using a conversion constant of 50%, similar carbon stock results were obtained. Nonlinear models (using diameter and length as predictor variables) proved an efficient tool for predicting CWD biomass at an element level. As expected, biomass data exhibited heteroscedasticity, which was mitigated by modeling the variance of the residuals with a power function of the combined variable. Adding decay class as an indicator variable also resulted in model improvement. / Este estudo buscou testar a metodologia de amostragem pela linha interceptadora (LIS), usando a inferência baseada no design, com amostragem sistemática estratificada em duas formas de transectos: linha reta e forma de cruz, ambos com três diferentes comprimentos de transectos: 100, 150 e 200 m para estimar o número de elementos, volume, biomassa e estoque de carbono de madeira morta; investigar a densidade da madeira e a concentração de carbono da madeira morta pela classe de decomposição; e, ajustar e selecionar modelos de biomassa e carbono de madeira morta, em dois tipos de floresta nativa no estado de São Paulo, Brasil: uma Floresta Estacional Semidecidual (SSF) e um Cerrado sensu-stricto (CSS). Em cada tipo florestal foram selecionados dois estratos e localidas dez unidades de amostragem em cada. A unidade de amostragem é um transecto Norte-Sul, com 200 m, que sobrepõe os outros comprimentos (100 e 150 m), e três transectos (para cada comprimento) na direção Leste-Oeste, formando a cruz, totalizando 650m. Foram medidos todos os elementos de madeira morta grossa (CWD) que cruzaram o transecto com um diâmetro _10 cm. Foi medido o diâmetro na interseção, o comprimento, a largura perpendicular, o elemento foi classificado de acordo com a classe de decomposição e, quando possível, a espécie foi identificada. De cada elemento foi retirado um disco de amostra na interseção, este foi fotografado para o cálculo da área oca. De cada disco foram extraídos cilindros, secos em estufa para determinação da densidade, estes foram moídos e analisados para determinação do teor de carbono (%). O volume de cada elemento foi calculado pela diferença da área seccional e área oca, multiplicada pelo comprimento; a biomassa foi calculada multiplicando o volume pela densidade; e o estoque de carbono foi calculado multiplicando a biomassa pela concentração de carbono. Os estimadores do total foram calculados por área e por hectare para o número de elementos de CWD, volume, biomassa e estoque de carbono; foram calculados por estrato, e combinados para a população. Os dados dos 650m de cada unidade foram utilizados para calcular as médias da densidade da madeira e concentração de carbono por classe de decomposição e, para construção de modelos lineares e não-lineares. Para a SSF, o design mais preciso foi transectos em forma de cruz, com 200 m. Para CSS foram selecionados transectos em cruz, com 150 m. As áreas apresentaram valores de biomassa 1.3-6.7 Mg/ha para CSS e SSF, respectivamente. Em ambos tipos florestais foi encontrado que à medida que a classe de decomposição aumenta (mais fresco para mais podre), a densidade da madeira diminui, seguindo os mesmos padrões encontrados na literatura. A concentração de carbono não apresentou mudança dentro das classes de decomposição. Modelos nãolineares com diâmetro e comprimento como variáveis preditoras provaram ser uma ferramenta eficiente para predizer a biomassa e carbono de CWD. Como esperado, os dados de biomassa apresentaram heterocedasticidade, mitigada pela modelagem da variância dos resíduos com uma função de potência. A adição da classe de decomposição como variável indicadora também mostrou melhora nos modelos.

The boreal forest in Fennoscandia has been subjected to major loss and fragmentation of natural forests due to intensive forestry. This has resulted in that forest edges are now abundant and important landscape features. Edges have documented effects on the structure, function and biodiversity in forests. Edge influence on biodiversity is complex and depends on interactions between many local and regional factors. This thesis focuses on sharp forest edges and their potential to influence biodiversity at the landscape-level. I have developed a method for quantification and characterization of sharp forest edges by interpretation of colour infrared (CIR) aerial photographs in combination with line intersect sampling (LIS) and sample plots. The method was used to estimate density of forest edge in 28 landscapes (each 1600 ha) in northern Sweden, differing in management intensity, landscape composition and geographical location. Forest edges were described in detail using edge, canopy and neighbourhood attributes. By combining these attributes it was possible to classify edges with respect to levels of exposure. A field experiment was conducted to examine the effect of edge contrast on growth of the old forest lichen Usnea longissima. The edge quantification method is accurate and efficient for estimating the length of sharp forest edges on an area basis (edge density, m ha-1) and for collecting detailed attributes of edges and their surroundings. In northern Sweden, the forest edge density is high (54 m ha-1) but varies extensively (12-102 m ha-1) between landscapes. Edge density is strongly correlated with the level of human disturbance and increases towards the southern part of the study area, at lower altitudes were management intensity is highest. Edge orientation, contrast and neighbourhood size shows an immense variation between edges and also varies between edge types. Regenerating edges are generally of higher contrast and face larger neighbourhoods than natural edges. Maintained edges had high contrast but small neighbourhoods. A larger proportion of edges in mature forests are highly exposed to microclimatic edge influence than edges in general. The field experiment revealed that growth of U. longissima was highest near edges where the vegetation on the adjacent area was sheltering, but not shading, the lichen. In the present thesis, I have provided a valuable tool for estimating density of forest edges with potential to yield information on important factors determining edge influence at landscape-level. The large variability in edge density, edge and neighbourhood attributes imply large differences in microclimate anf thus in the potential for ede influence. Management and conservation strategies must incorporate these factors to realistically address edge influence on biota at the landscape-level.

The objective of this study was to test the line intersect sampling (LIS) methodology using the design-based inference with stratified systematic sampling and two transect shapes: a straight line and a cross shape, both with three different lengths (100, 150, and 200 m) to estimate the number of coarse woody debris (CWD) elements, their volume, biomass and carbon stocks; by decay class; furthermore, we fit and select CWD biomass and carbon models. The study area includes two types of native forest in the State of São Paulo, Brazil: a Seasonal Semi-deciduous Forest (SSF) and a Cerrado sensu-stricto (CSS). Two strata were chosen in each area, and in each stratum ten sampling units were installed according to a systematic sampling protocol. Each sampling unit had one North- South line of 200 m superimposed over the other lengths (100 and 150 m) and three lines (one for each length) in the East-West direction forming the cross shapes, for a total 650 m per sampling unit. All CWD elements with a diameter _ 10 cm that crossed the transect were tallied. For each element, the diameter, length, perpendicular width, decay class, and (when possible) species was recorded. Disc samples were taken from each element, from which cylinder samples were extracted then oven dried to determine density. These cylinders were milled and analyzed to determine carbon content (%). The volume of each element was calculated by taking the difference between cross-sectional area and any hollowed area, then multiplying by the element\'s length. Biomass was calculated by multiplying volume values by density values, and carbon stocks were calculated by multiplying biomass by the carbon percentage factors computed via lab analysis. Total estimators were calculated by area and per hectare for the number of CWD elements, their volume, biomass, and carbon stocks. These estimators were calculated by stratum then combined across the entire sample population. The data from each sampling unit was also used to calculate the wood density and carbon concentration by decay class, as well as to fit linear and nonlinear models. For the SSF area, the most accurate transect design was the 200 m cross shaped; and for the CSS area was selected the 150 m cross shape. Both areas showed lower biomass values (1.3 and 6.7 Mg/ha for the CSS and SSF areas, respectively) than other studies in the Amazon Forest where CWD research has been conducted. In both areas, as the decay class increased (from least to most rotten material), wood density decreased, which follows the same pattern as other literature. Carbon concentration barely changed within decay classes. Using a conversion constant of 50%, similar carbon stock results were obtained. Nonlinear models (using diameter and length as predictor variables) proved an efficient tool for predicting CWD biomass at an element level. As expected, biomass data exhibited heteroscedasticity, which was mitigated by modeling the variance of the residuals with a power function of the combined variable. Adding decay class as an indicator variable also resulted in model improvement. / Este estudo buscou testar a metodologia de amostragem pela linha interceptadora (LIS), usando a inferência baseada no design, com amostragem sistemática estratificada em duas formas de transectos: linha reta e forma de cruz, ambos com três diferentes comprimentos de transectos: 100, 150 e 200 m para estimar o número de elementos, volume, biomassa e estoque de carbono de madeira morta; investigar a densidade da madeira e a concentração de carbono da madeira morta pela classe de decomposição; e, ajustar e selecionar modelos de biomassa e carbono de madeira morta, em dois tipos de floresta nativa no estado de São Paulo, Brasil: uma Floresta Estacional Semidecidual (SSF) e um Cerrado sensu-stricto (CSS). Em cada tipo florestal foram selecionados dois estratos e localidas dez unidades de amostragem em cada. A unidade de amostragem é um transecto Norte-Sul, com 200 m, que sobrepõe os outros comprimentos (100 e 150 m), e três transectos (para cada comprimento) na direção Leste-Oeste, formando a cruz, totalizando 650m. Foram medidos todos os elementos de madeira morta grossa (CWD) que cruzaram o transecto com um diâmetro _10 cm. Foi medido o diâmetro na interseção, o comprimento, a largura perpendicular, o elemento foi classificado de acordo com a classe de decomposição e, quando possível, a espécie foi identificada. De cada elemento foi retirado um disco de amostra na interseção, este foi fotografado para o cálculo da área oca. De cada disco foram extraídos cilindros, secos em estufa para determinação da densidade, estes foram moídos e analisados para determinação do teor de carbono (%). O volume de cada elemento foi calculado pela diferença da área seccional e área oca, multiplicada pelo comprimento; a biomassa foi calculada multiplicando o volume pela densidade; e o estoque de carbono foi calculado multiplicando a biomassa pela concentração de carbono. Os estimadores do total foram calculados por área e por hectare para o número de elementos de CWD, volume, biomassa e estoque de carbono; foram calculados por estrato, e combinados para a população. Os dados dos 650m de cada unidade foram utilizados para calcular as médias da densidade da madeira e concentração de carbono por classe de decomposição e, para construção de modelos lineares e não-lineares. Para a SSF, o design mais preciso foi transectos em forma de cruz, com 200 m. Para CSS foram selecionados transectos em cruz, com 150 m. As áreas apresentaram valores de biomassa 1.3-6.7 Mg/ha para CSS e SSF, respectivamente. Em ambos tipos florestais foi encontrado que à medida que a classe de decomposição aumenta (mais fresco para mais podre), a densidade da madeira diminui, seguindo os mesmos padrões encontrados na literatura. A concentração de carbono não apresentou mudança dentro das classes de decomposição. Modelos nãolineares com diâmetro e comprimento como variáveis preditoras provaram ser uma ferramenta eficiente para predizer a biomassa e carbono de CWD. Como esperado, os dados de biomassa apresentaram heterocedasticidade, mitigada pela modelagem da variância dos resíduos com uma função de potência. A adição da classe de decomposição como variável indicadora também mostrou melhora nos modelos.