info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Doctorat en philosophie et lettres, Orientation linguistique / Vol 1 = TH-000001 ;Vol 2 = TH-000002 ;Annexes = TH-000003 / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

La relecture du Cours de Linguistique Générale (SAUSSURE, 1916) – une édition et compilation du programme linguistique développé par Ferdinand de Saussure dans des cours donnés à l’Université de Hautes Ètudes à Genève – sous le regard des sources manuscrites du Cours, ainsi que sous d’autres écrits du linguiste suisse (ENGLER, BOUQUET, 2002), nous apporte de nouvelles interprétations et manières de concevoir le travail développé par le maître genevois (BOUQUET, 1997 ; NORMAND, 2000 ; DEPECKER, 2010) lorsqu’il « essaie de montrer au linguiste ce que le linguiste fait. Malgré les avancées qui ont eu lieu dans la compréhension des conceptions saussuriennes et du contexte de ses contributions pour le domaine de la linguistique (DE MAURO, 1956), l’enseignement de la pensée linguistique saussurienne semble être basée sur des lectures réductrices de l’oeuvre du maître, telle que celle élaborée par le structuralisme nord-américain et diffusée jusqu’à nos jours, qui d’ailleurs exclut la parole et le sujet parlant du champ de l’étude de la langue (BLOOMFIELD, 1933). Lorsque l’on établit cette exclusion, l’on élimine aussi l’un des primitifs théoriques les plus importants de la théorie saussurienne : le rôle de l’aspect phonique dans le langage. Tel qu’observé dans des études précédentes (SORTICA, 2011), notre objectif est d’aller au-delà des constats concernant les courants de l’enseignement de la linguistique : nous souhaitons comprendre comment le programme saussurien pourrait être enseigné puisqu’il s’agit de l’une des bases nécessaires à comprendre la linguistique contemporaine (idem, ibidem), et ce, à partir de la compréhension de la base du développement de sa théorie : le phonique et ses relations de valeur. Pour ce faire, nous faisons une révision bibliographique du Cours (SAUSSURE, 1916) tout en le mettant en relation avec d’autres écrits saussuriens (ENGLER, BOUQUET, 2002 ; MARCHESE, 2002 ; TESTENOIRE, 2013 ; PARRET, 2014). Notre objectif est de décrire et d’explorer les extraits traitant des études sur l’aspect phonique, en spécial, les chapitres destinés à la phonétique, à la phonologie, à la conception de signe et à la théorie de la valeur. Ainsi, nous considérons que le champ des études du phonique est intrinsèquement lié avec la théorie de la valeur et avec l’organisation de la contribution saussurienne pour la linguistique moderne, étant donc un primitif théorique du programme saussurien. De ce fait, nous comprenons que l’enseignement de la pensée saussurienne à partir du point de vue du phonique non seulement évite la lecture réductrice de l’oeuvre du maître genevois, vu qu’il inclut la parole et le parlant comme des points cruciaux de l’étude de la langue, mais aussi met en évidence le passage de la pensée linguistique dominante du XIXe siècle à la pensée qui est le point de repère pour les études des langues pour analyser l’héritage saussurien d’après la base de sa théorique. / A releitura do Curso de Linguística Geral (SAUSSURE, 1916), edição e compilação do programa linguístico desenvolvido por Ferdinand de Saussure em seus cursos na Universidade de Altos Estudos de Genebra, sob o olhar das fontes manuscritas do Curso, assim como de outros escritos do punho do linguista suíço (ENGLER, BOUQUET, 2002) trouxe novas interpretações e maneiras de se conceber o trabalho desenvolvido pelo mestre genebrino (BOUQUET, 1997; NORMAND, 2000; DEPECKER, 2010) ao “tentar mostrar ao linguista o que ele faz”. Apesar disso e dos avanços no entendimento das concepções saussurianas e do contexto de suas contribuições para o ramo da linguística (DE MAURO, 1956), o ensino do pensamento linguístico saussuriano ainda parece estar baseado em leituras reducionistas da obra do mestre, como aquela feita pelo estruturalismo norte-americano e difundida até hoje que, de maneira geral, exclui a fala e o sujeito falante do campo do estudo da língua (BLOOMFIELD, 1933). Dessa maneira, ao se fazer essa exclusão, elimina-se também um dos mais importantes primitivos teóricos da teoria saussuriana: o papel do fônico na linguagem. Como em estudos anteriores (SORTICA, 2011) já observamos as principais correntes de ensino de linguística, o objetivo deste trabalho é ir além dessas constatações e entender como pode se dar o ensino do programa saussuriano, já elencado por nós como uma das bases para se compreender a linguística contemporânea (idem, ibidem), a partir da compreensão da base do desenvolvimento de sua teoria: o fônico e suas relações de valor. Para fazer isso, fazemos revisão bibliográfica do Curso (SAUSSURE, 1916), cotejando-o com outros escritos saussurianos ENGLER, BOUQUET, 2002; MARCHESE, 2002 ; TESTENOIRE, 2013 ; PARRET, 2014), descrevendo e explorando os trechos que tratam dos estudos do fônico, em especial os capítulos destinados à fonética, ao apêndice de fonologia, à concepção de signo e à teoria do valor. Destarte, consideramos que o campo dos estudos do fônico tem relação primordial com a teoria do valor e com a organização da contribuição saussuriana para a linguística moderna, sendo, portanto, primitivo teórico no programa de Ferdinand de Saussure. Disso, depreendemos que o ensino do pensamento saussuriano a partir do ponto de vista do fônico evita a leitura reducionista da obra do mestre genebrino, já que inclui a fala e o falante como pontos cruciais do estudo da língua. Além disso, evidencia a passagem do pensamento linguístico dominante no século XIX àquele considerado marco até hoje nos estudos das línguas, pois analisa a herança saussuriana a partir da base de sua teoria.

La relecture du Cours de Linguistique Générale (SAUSSURE, 1916) – une édition et compilation du programme linguistique développé par Ferdinand de Saussure dans des cours donnés à l’Université de Hautes Ètudes à Genève – sous le regard des sources manuscrites du Cours, ainsi que sous d’autres écrits du linguiste suisse (ENGLER, BOUQUET, 2002), nous apporte de nouvelles interprétations et manières de concevoir le travail développé par le maître genevois (BOUQUET, 1997 ; NORMAND, 2000 ; DEPECKER, 2010) lorsqu’il « essaie de montrer au linguiste ce que le linguiste fait. Malgré les avancées qui ont eu lieu dans la compréhension des conceptions saussuriennes et du contexte de ses contributions pour le domaine de la linguistique (DE MAURO, 1956), l’enseignement de la pensée linguistique saussurienne semble être basée sur des lectures réductrices de l’oeuvre du maître, telle que celle élaborée par le structuralisme nord-américain et diffusée jusqu’à nos jours, qui d’ailleurs exclut la parole et le sujet parlant du champ de l’étude de la langue (BLOOMFIELD, 1933). Lorsque l’on établit cette exclusion, l’on élimine aussi l’un des primitifs théoriques les plus importants de la théorie saussurienne : le rôle de l’aspect phonique dans le langage. Tel qu’observé dans des études précédentes (SORTICA, 2011), notre objectif est d’aller au-delà des constats concernant les courants de l’enseignement de la linguistique : nous souhaitons comprendre comment le programme saussurien pourrait être enseigné puisqu’il s’agit de l’une des bases nécessaires à comprendre la linguistique contemporaine (idem, ibidem), et ce, à partir de la compréhension de la base du développement de sa théorie : le phonique et ses relations de valeur. Pour ce faire, nous faisons une révision bibliographique du Cours (SAUSSURE, 1916) tout en le mettant en relation avec d’autres écrits saussuriens (ENGLER, BOUQUET, 2002 ; MARCHESE, 2002 ; TESTENOIRE, 2013 ; PARRET, 2014). Notre objectif est de décrire et d’explorer les extraits traitant des études sur l’aspect phonique, en spécial, les chapitres destinés à la phonétique, à la phonologie, à la conception de signe et à la théorie de la valeur. Ainsi, nous considérons que le champ des études du phonique est intrinsèquement lié avec la théorie de la valeur et avec l’organisation de la contribution saussurienne pour la linguistique moderne, étant donc un primitif théorique du programme saussurien. De ce fait, nous comprenons que l’enseignement de la pensée saussurienne à partir du point de vue du phonique non seulement évite la lecture réductrice de l’oeuvre du maître genevois, vu qu’il inclut la parole et le parlant comme des points cruciaux de l’étude de la langue, mais aussi met en évidence le passage de la pensée linguistique dominante du XIXe siècle à la pensée qui est le point de repère pour les études des langues pour analyser l’héritage saussurien d’après la base de sa théorique. / A releitura do Curso de Linguística Geral (SAUSSURE, 1916), edição e compilação do programa linguístico desenvolvido por Ferdinand de Saussure em seus cursos na Universidade de Altos Estudos de Genebra, sob o olhar das fontes manuscritas do Curso, assim como de outros escritos do punho do linguista suíço (ENGLER, BOUQUET, 2002) trouxe novas interpretações e maneiras de se conceber o trabalho desenvolvido pelo mestre genebrino (BOUQUET, 1997; NORMAND, 2000; DEPECKER, 2010) ao “tentar mostrar ao linguista o que ele faz”. Apesar disso e dos avanços no entendimento das concepções saussurianas e do contexto de suas contribuições para o ramo da linguística (DE MAURO, 1956), o ensino do pensamento linguístico saussuriano ainda parece estar baseado em leituras reducionistas da obra do mestre, como aquela feita pelo estruturalismo norte-americano e difundida até hoje que, de maneira geral, exclui a fala e o sujeito falante do campo do estudo da língua (BLOOMFIELD, 1933). Dessa maneira, ao se fazer essa exclusão, elimina-se também um dos mais importantes primitivos teóricos da teoria saussuriana: o papel do fônico na linguagem. Como em estudos anteriores (SORTICA, 2011) já observamos as principais correntes de ensino de linguística, o objetivo deste trabalho é ir além dessas constatações e entender como pode se dar o ensino do programa saussuriano, já elencado por nós como uma das bases para se compreender a linguística contemporânea (idem, ibidem), a partir da compreensão da base do desenvolvimento de sua teoria: o fônico e suas relações de valor. Para fazer isso, fazemos revisão bibliográfica do Curso (SAUSSURE, 1916), cotejando-o com outros escritos saussurianos ENGLER, BOUQUET, 2002; MARCHESE, 2002 ; TESTENOIRE, 2013 ; PARRET, 2014), descrevendo e explorando os trechos que tratam dos estudos do fônico, em especial os capítulos destinados à fonética, ao apêndice de fonologia, à concepção de signo e à teoria do valor. Destarte, consideramos que o campo dos estudos do fônico tem relação primordial com a teoria do valor e com a organização da contribuição saussuriana para a linguística moderna, sendo, portanto, primitivo teórico no programa de Ferdinand de Saussure. Disso, depreendemos que o ensino do pensamento saussuriano a partir do ponto de vista do fônico evita a leitura reducionista da obra do mestre genebrino, já que inclui a fala e o falante como pontos cruciais do estudo da língua. Além disso, evidencia a passagem do pensamento linguístico dominante no século XIX àquele considerado marco até hoje nos estudos das línguas, pois analisa a herança saussuriana a partir da base de sua teoria.

La relecture du Cours de Linguistique Générale (SAUSSURE, 1916) – une édition et compilation du programme linguistique développé par Ferdinand de Saussure dans des cours donnés à l’Université de Hautes Ètudes à Genève – sous le regard des sources manuscrites du Cours, ainsi que sous d’autres écrits du linguiste suisse (ENGLER, BOUQUET, 2002), nous apporte de nouvelles interprétations et manières de concevoir le travail développé par le maître genevois (BOUQUET, 1997 ; NORMAND, 2000 ; DEPECKER, 2010) lorsqu’il « essaie de montrer au linguiste ce que le linguiste fait. Malgré les avancées qui ont eu lieu dans la compréhension des conceptions saussuriennes et du contexte de ses contributions pour le domaine de la linguistique (DE MAURO, 1956), l’enseignement de la pensée linguistique saussurienne semble être basée sur des lectures réductrices de l’oeuvre du maître, telle que celle élaborée par le structuralisme nord-américain et diffusée jusqu’à nos jours, qui d’ailleurs exclut la parole et le sujet parlant du champ de l’étude de la langue (BLOOMFIELD, 1933). Lorsque l’on établit cette exclusion, l’on élimine aussi l’un des primitifs théoriques les plus importants de la théorie saussurienne : le rôle de l’aspect phonique dans le langage. Tel qu’observé dans des études précédentes (SORTICA, 2011), notre objectif est d’aller au-delà des constats concernant les courants de l’enseignement de la linguistique : nous souhaitons comprendre comment le programme saussurien pourrait être enseigné puisqu’il s’agit de l’une des bases nécessaires à comprendre la linguistique contemporaine (idem, ibidem), et ce, à partir de la compréhension de la base du développement de sa théorie : le phonique et ses relations de valeur. Pour ce faire, nous faisons une révision bibliographique du Cours (SAUSSURE, 1916) tout en le mettant en relation avec d’autres écrits saussuriens (ENGLER, BOUQUET, 2002 ; MARCHESE, 2002 ; TESTENOIRE, 2013 ; PARRET, 2014). Notre objectif est de décrire et d’explorer les extraits traitant des études sur l’aspect phonique, en spécial, les chapitres destinés à la phonétique, à la phonologie, à la conception de signe et à la théorie de la valeur. Ainsi, nous considérons que le champ des études du phonique est intrinsèquement lié avec la théorie de la valeur et avec l’organisation de la contribution saussurienne pour la linguistique moderne, étant donc un primitif théorique du programme saussurien. De ce fait, nous comprenons que l’enseignement de la pensée saussurienne à partir du point de vue du phonique non seulement évite la lecture réductrice de l’oeuvre du maître genevois, vu qu’il inclut la parole et le parlant comme des points cruciaux de l’étude de la langue, mais aussi met en évidence le passage de la pensée linguistique dominante du XIXe siècle à la pensée qui est le point de repère pour les études des langues pour analyser l’héritage saussurien d’après la base de sa théorique. / A releitura do Curso de Linguística Geral (SAUSSURE, 1916), edição e compilação do programa linguístico desenvolvido por Ferdinand de Saussure em seus cursos na Universidade de Altos Estudos de Genebra, sob o olhar das fontes manuscritas do Curso, assim como de outros escritos do punho do linguista suíço (ENGLER, BOUQUET, 2002) trouxe novas interpretações e maneiras de se conceber o trabalho desenvolvido pelo mestre genebrino (BOUQUET, 1997; NORMAND, 2000; DEPECKER, 2010) ao “tentar mostrar ao linguista o que ele faz”. Apesar disso e dos avanços no entendimento das concepções saussurianas e do contexto de suas contribuições para o ramo da linguística (DE MAURO, 1956), o ensino do pensamento linguístico saussuriano ainda parece estar baseado em leituras reducionistas da obra do mestre, como aquela feita pelo estruturalismo norte-americano e difundida até hoje que, de maneira geral, exclui a fala e o sujeito falante do campo do estudo da língua (BLOOMFIELD, 1933). Dessa maneira, ao se fazer essa exclusão, elimina-se também um dos mais importantes primitivos teóricos da teoria saussuriana: o papel do fônico na linguagem. Como em estudos anteriores (SORTICA, 2011) já observamos as principais correntes de ensino de linguística, o objetivo deste trabalho é ir além dessas constatações e entender como pode se dar o ensino do programa saussuriano, já elencado por nós como uma das bases para se compreender a linguística contemporânea (idem, ibidem), a partir da compreensão da base do desenvolvimento de sua teoria: o fônico e suas relações de valor. Para fazer isso, fazemos revisão bibliográfica do Curso (SAUSSURE, 1916), cotejando-o com outros escritos saussurianos ENGLER, BOUQUET, 2002; MARCHESE, 2002 ; TESTENOIRE, 2013 ; PARRET, 2014), descrevendo e explorando os trechos que tratam dos estudos do fônico, em especial os capítulos destinados à fonética, ao apêndice de fonologia, à concepção de signo e à teoria do valor. Destarte, consideramos que o campo dos estudos do fônico tem relação primordial com a teoria do valor e com a organização da contribuição saussuriana para a linguística moderna, sendo, portanto, primitivo teórico no programa de Ferdinand de Saussure. Disso, depreendemos que o ensino do pensamento saussuriano a partir do ponto de vista do fônico evita a leitura reducionista da obra do mestre genebrino, já que inclui a fala e o falante como pontos cruciais do estudo da língua. Além disso, evidencia a passagem do pensamento linguístico dominante no século XIX àquele considerado marco até hoje nos estudos das línguas, pois analisa a herança saussuriana a partir da base de sua teoria.

Il s'agit de fonder une sémiotique du lien, c'est-à-dire une méthode d'établissement du sens par analyse des signifiants relationnels. Cette méthode est destinée à être utilisée en thérapie familiale systémique et plus particulièrement en thérapie de couple, mais l'auteur de cette recherche, pourtant master en psychologie et psychothérapeute, a choisi d'utiliser un corpus de pièces de Shakespeare autour de la question: qu'est-ce qui fait qu'une histoire contenant tous les ferments de la tragédie (par exemple "Beaucoup de bruit pour rien") finit en comédie et, inversement, qu'est-ce qui fait qu'une histoire contenant tous les ferments de la comédie (par exemple "Roméo et Juliette") se termine en tragédie? / Doctorat en Information et communication / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

In the last few decades, there has been increased interest in the incorporation of data from bi- and multilingual individuals in linguistic theory: from second language acquisition and language attrition to heritage varieties and code-switching. This dissertation discusses a range of ways in which code-switching data can provide insight into the mechanisms that underlie linguistic structures. The data will be analysed within the framework of Minimalist Generative syntax and Distributed Morphology.The first part investigates grammatical gender assignment in code- switching between English, a language without grammatical gender, and two languages with grammatical gender: French and Belgian Dutch. These languages have comparable, but different gender systems. French has two genders: masculine and feminine, whereas Belgian Dutch adds a third: neuter. The study in this part of the dissertation compares gen- der assignment strategies in bilinguals with different profiles. In addition, the code-switching data provide evidence against the default status of neuter in Belgian Dutch.The second part focuses on word order and includes two studies: one on verb-second word order in Dutch-English code-switching and one on adverb placement in English-French and Dutch-English code- switching. The verb-second chapter identifies a lacuna in the traditional Generative analysis for verb second and uses the CS data to address this. The chapter on adverb position looks at placement of the adverb between the verb and its direct object, which is allowed in Dutch and French, but not in English. For all domains investigated, it is found that the finite verb predicts word order.Taken together, these studies demonstrate that bilingual data can shine a light on elements of the theory of grammar which remain in the shadows when only monolingual data is used. / Les dernières décennies ont vu croître l’intérêt pour l’intégration à la réflexion en linguistique théorique des données produites par des locuteurs/trices bilingues ou multilingues, que celles-ci concernent l’acquisition d’une langue seconde, l’attrition, les langues d’héritage ou l’alternance codique. Le présent travail développe plusieurs exemples où les données issues de l’alternance codique éclairent les mécanismes qui sous-tendent les structures linguistiques. Les données recueillies sont interprétées dans le cadre de la syntaxe générative minimaliste et de la morphologie distribuée (« distributed morphology »).Dans un premier temps, nous analysons l’attribution du genre grammatical dans l’alternance entre l’anglais, d’une part, et le français et le néerlandais de Belgique, de l’autre. Alors qu’il n’y a pas en anglais de genre grammatical, le français et le néerlandais de Belgique marquent ce genre, mais de façon différente :si le français distingue deux genres, masculin et féminin, le néerlandais de Belgique y adjoint un troisième, le neutre. Dans cette partie de la thèse, nous dressons le profil des stratégies d’attribution du genre auprès de deux types distincts de bilingues et nous établissons également que le neutre n’est pas le genre par défaut en néerlandais de Belgique.Dans un second temps, nous nous penchons sur l’ordre des constituants. Dans une première étude, nous examinons l’ordre des mots avec « verbe second » (V2) dans l’alternance anglais-néerlandais. Nous abordons ensuite le placement de l’adverbe dans l’alternance anglais- français et anglais-néerlandais. Le chapitre consacré à V2 identifie une lacune dans la littérature générative et tire profit des données de l’al- ternance pour y proposer une solution. Le chapitre consacré à l’adverbe s’intéresse au placement de celui-ci entre le verbe et son objet, position licite en français et néerlandais mais pas en anglais. Dans ces deux études, il apparaît que c’est la langue du verbe à la forme finie qui prédit l’ordre des constituants.L’ensemble des recherches ici réunies démontre que les données bilingues mettent en lumière des aspects de la théorie grammaticale qui restent dans l’ombre lorsque le chercheur se limite à des données monolingues. / Doctorat en Langues, lettres et traductologie / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

The goal I have pursued in writing this dissertation has been to provide the most complete account that I could manage of the various aspects of language that can be labelled metalinguistic, both in the language-system and in discourse. On a rough characterisation, metalanguage is language about language. Since I understand language both as a ‘potential’ (the language-system) and as its actualisation (language as discourse), there are theoretically four situations that can be subsumed under the term ‘metalanguage’: 1. there are lexical items (units in the system) that denote aspects of the system (preposition, noun, conjugation, plural, etc.); 2. there are items that denote elements of discourse (words and phrases like the aforementioned, the latter, etc.). At the same time, there are 3. utterances about the system (e.g. ‘Boston’ is a noun), and 4. utterances about discourse (i.e. about other utterances or parts of utterances, e.g. The old cow said teddible instead of terrible). In both 3 and 4, we have words that reflexively mention linguistic sequences. Following Rey-Debove, I have chosen to call these ‘autonyms’.Note also that discourse about language can be combined with discourse about extralinguistic reality. An utterance about a situation in the world can secondarily say something, for example, about language use; such is the case in The U.S. advocates ‘military action’, as newspapermen call it now, where a comment about a euphemism is appended to a statement about ‘the world’.All in all, this amounts to a fairly large body of data that is varied in kind. My goal has been to bring some order to this variegated set, to highlight in what respects its elements are similar and dissimilar. Thus, I have sought to sort out a number of issues that had not, as far as I could judge, been treated satisfactorily on previous occasions, and to make my descriptions compatible with the theory that was gradually taking shape. In particular, I have underlined the strong connections between the system-level aspects of metalanguage and its discourse manifestations, and I have been led to suggest that the latter ‘leak into’ the system. Besides, I have tried to give a more thorough account of certain properties of metalinguistic discourse, notably the recursiveness of mention or quotation, and its referential diversity. When I felt that I had come to an adequate account of metalinguistic discourse, I have attempted to supply a typology of its various manifestations that would integrate most of the criteria brought up in previous attempts. In the final part of the dissertation, I have brought together what I regard as a series of genuine challenges to the best existing theories of metalinguistic discourse, and have attempted to frame what possible solutions could be.THINGS IN SENTENCES, INFINITE LEXICON? P-ÊÊ UNE CODA APRÈS RECA + CHAPTER 8***The very notion of metalanguage originated in formal logic in the first half of the 20th c. Soon, some of the concepts developed by logicians were taken over by philosophers of language (and subsequently by a few linguists). That was notably the case with the distinction between the use and the mention of a linguistic sequence; use designating the ordinary, transparent, employment of an expression to denote something outside language and mention its being chosen as a topic for discussion. When the subject came under the scrutiny of philosophers of language, the essentially prescriptive approach of the logician (the logician decreed which features his languages and metalanguages should possess), was turned into an attempt at describing actual linguistic mechanisms. It is in this tradition that I situate myself.Philosophers of language have turned out to be particularly interested in quotation (the mention of linguistic expressions), but I have thought it useful to introduce a term that covered not just quotation, but also mention-without-quote-marks, as well as hybrid cases like example 5. This term is reflexive metalinguistic demonstration, but for convenience’ sake I shall make do with metalinguistic demonstration.In Chapter 2, I have examined in detail the main theories of metalinguistic demonstration put forward in the course of the 20th c. namely the Name, Description, Demonstrative and Identity theories. In the process, I have been able to gradually identify the various properties of metalinguistic demonstrations that should be regarded as essential. And I have also formed a clearer idea of the body of data that a theory should be able to account for. In the end, I have been able to outline what I believe is a sound theory of metalinguistic demonstrations. This theory is chiefly informed by the proposals of François Recanati (2000, 2001), supplemented with insights of Paul Saka (1998), both of whom are indebted to the Demonstrative and Identity accounts.My reasons for using Recanati (2001) as the backbone of my own theory are the following. Recanati has successfully drawn the line between two types of meaning conveyed by metalinguistic demonstrations, namely ‘pictorial’ and ‘conventional linguistic’ meaning, something that had not been done with that clarity before. Besides, he has had the wisdom to give up the standard assumption that all metalinguistic demonstrations are referential, an assumption that inevitably led to theoretical dead ends. Moreover, drawing on the first two insights, Recanati has also separated out the syntactic and pragmatic aspects that were often confused in previous approaches.There is no doubt that the theory put forward by Recanati in 2001 is the most empirically adequate that can be found in the literature. Besides, it also accounts for an impressive range of key properties. Still, there are two interesting properties that received very little attention from Recanati, that is, referential diversity and recursiveness. Though Paul Saka has argued in favour of both in a 1998 paper, I believe his defence to have been somewhat clumsy. And therefore I have tried to offer more convincing evidence in favour of these properties.Let’s start with ReferenceAs Recanati has shown, not all metalinguistic demonstrations are referential expressions. But there is one aspect of reference that he says very little about: the sort or sorts of referents that a referential autonym can have. The theory implicitly suggests that autonyms can only refer to types. (Many writers have claimed more robustly and more explicitlythat there was only one sort of referents for autonyms, always either types or classes of tokens).I hold this view to be incorrect. As I’ve indicated in Chapter 4 of the thesis, I believe that several sorts of referents must be distinguished. Let us have a few examples:Run is a verbRun has three lettersShe said, “I ain’t EVER gonna tell ya”The first refers to a lexeme, since the predicate applies to runs, ran, running, as well.The second, only to a form (since not true of running or runs).Both could still be said to be abstract objects, and one might wish to call these ‘types’.The third, however, well and truly seems to refer to a token, the particular utterance produced by the woman behind she, witness the mimicry involved in the direct speech report.In my discussion of the next property, I offer a further argument in favour of referential diversity.2. Metalinguistic demonstrations can be iterated (repeated), a property usually described as recursiveness, and which has given rise to some controversies. Some demonstrativists, notably Cappelen & Lepore, because they hold the interior of a quotation to be semantically inert, have rejected the idea of recursiveness. I think, however, that their rejection comes from their failure to discern several types of recursiveness. In my dissertation, I have distinguished three; I shall only sketch two here.“ ‘Boston’ ” is an autonym.Typographical recursiveness: hardly very interesting, since it is a mechanical operation that can be repeated at will.The next pair of examples throws a more interesting light on the matter:‘Boston’ is a six-letter word.In each utterance of the previous example, “ ‘Boston’ ” is used to refer to an orthographic formBoston enclosed in two pairs of quote marks refers to particular tokens of Boston in a single pair of quote marks, as are produced when uttering a token of the first sentence, ‘Boston’ is a six-letter word. In each utterance of that sentence, the subject, ‘Boston’, itself refers, this time to the name Boston. This means that we have a situation in which an autonym refers to another autonym which also refers: reference here is iterated.This is actually no problem for the assumption of the inertness of the interior of the quotation, because reference is directed outwards: the interior of the quotation itself (the token displayed) remains inert. Note that referential recursiveness is only possible when one has a meta-quotation that refers to a token that is itself a referential autonym. This confirms the need for the theory to accommodate reference to particular tokens.I have made further use of the theory of metalinguistic demonstrations in Chapter 6 of the thesis, which is devoted to sketching a typology of metalinguistic demonstrations. In this connection, I have tried to bring together different types of discriminating factors that had been used in previous classifications (syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, typographical, lexical). These did not seem to be compatible from the outset, but then I realised that they might perhaps all be integrated into a single typology if I adopted an interpreter’s perspective. I reflected that that perspective provided a criterion for determining which characteristics of metalinguistic demonstrations would count as relevant variables for a typology: only those that made a ‘difference for the interpreter’ (i.e. affected his/her interpretative processes) would be retained.I also took advanatge of the general theory for the interpretation of utterances that has been set out in some recent publications, notably by Bach and Recanati (and which I outline in Chapter 3 of the thesis), and eventually reached what I regard as a decent result. Moreover, I also made a couple of interesting discoveries. The first one is that quite a bit of the interpretation of an utterance takes place at a ‘pre-interpretative’ level, that is, befor a sentence has been clearly identified (disambiguated). In particular, there are significant pictorial aspects of metalinguistic demonstrations that enter into the disambiguation process rather than into interpretation proper. The second one is that there is an impressive number of aspects of meaning that are linked to the speaker’s intentions, and should theoretically require access to the wide context of an utterance to be processed, that can be accessed at very low (semantic) levels of interpretation.In the final part of this presentation, I wish to examine a couple of instances of hybridity that face the theory with a more serious challenge than example 5 on the first slide. That example was easily explained in terms of simultaneous use and mention (the standard account in the literature): the same sequence, military action, was used ordinarily and, secondarily, demonstrated as being a particular form of euphemism. Other hybrids, on the other hand, do not lend themselves to such an analysis in a straightforward way. The first example I wish to bring up raises an interesting problem in connection with the notion of grammaticality:Robbe-Grillet describes himself in his introduction as “volontiers professeur de moi-même”.This can be rewritten as a pair of sentences, one for use the other for mention. We get:Use :Robbe-Grillet describes himself in his introduction as volontiers professeur de moi-même.Mention :Robbe-Grillet uses the expression “volontiers professeur de moi-même”.Although the mention line raises no special issues, there are great doubts as to the grammaticality of the ordinary-use line: a language-shift occurs in the middle of the sentence, and is not signalled by any marker, unlike in the initial hybrid. Though Recanati’s framework allows for language-shifts, and could therefore be relied on to argue that the correct interpretation can be ascribed to the French words in the example, it does not state rules determining at which spot in an utterance such a shift is acceptable grammatically. In other words, it says nothing about the possibility of a grammar that would straddle English and French. Fortunately, the idea of such grammars is supported by the limited research that has been carried out about code-switching. So, there may be theoretical backing for the assumption that the use line may after all be grammatical (with respect to a hybrid grammar).Note that these remarks are valid, I believe, not just for the use line of the twofold paraphrase, but for the initial hybrid too. Indeed, it is not clear — though some would be ready to say so — that the presence of quote marks is enough to alter the grammaticality of an utterance.Note also that an example like the previous one is a reminder of an essential fact about the work of language scholars: they start out to describe and/or explain some empirical data they find significant. But as things get more complicated, they must continually make decisions as to what must be acknowledged as relevant data for their research. Every step of the way, there may be a temptation to dismiss data — in the present case, on grounds of ungrammaticality — because these data threaten the validity of the theory being devised. Here, thanks to an analogy with grammatical accounts of code-switching, a case can be made for the grammaticality of utterances like the one under consideration. It is these kinds of extensions that broaden the linguist’s horizons and make research worthwhile.The second example I wish to examine raises interesting issues concerning iconicity. Though I have said nothing about it so far, iconicity is perhaps the single most important notion in any discussion of metalinguistic demonstration. In a nutshell, the basic assumption about ‘how such a demonstration makes sense’ is that the tokens displayed in a mentioning utterance are iconically related to the target of the demonstration. Iconicity can initially be understood as a matter of formal resemblance (cf the first batch of examples on Slide 1). The following example shows that the notion must be made more flexble than that:Descartes said that man “is a thinking substance”.Use: Descartes said that man is a thinking substance.Mention: Descartes said “is a thinking substance”.It can be seen that the mention line of the paraphrase is truth-conditionally incorrect: Descartes did not produce a token of is a thinking substance, since he was writing in Latin, not English. What Descartes said was est res cogitans. This might be taken to imply that the relation between the English tokens displayed and the Latin target is not a matter of iconicity. I would, with several other writers, suggest another direction: There is iconicity in this example, but the concept must be understood to be flexible and adaptable to contextual constraints. I believe such a conception to be necessary if one wants to be able to account for metalinguistic demonstrations within a single explanatory framework. There are too many instances of quotations that are not supported by formal identity to maintain a rigid notion of iconicity. I have added a last example on the slideConclusionAlthough I originally aspired to a comprehensive survey of things metalinguistic, I cannot but concede that there are still multiple aspects of the reflexive use of language that need looking into. I believe, however, that I have been able to shed some light on some areas of the debate. For instance, I believe that my discussion of the recursiveness and referential diversity of autonyms goes one step further than previous discussions. In particular, I hope to have been able to show convincingly that, contrary to a widespread opinion, an autonym can refer to various object, notably individual tokens. When these results are added to an excellent theory like Recanati’s, one ends up with a powerful explanatory apparatus. Moreover, this apparatus has the added advantage that it can easily be integrated into the general theory for the interpretation of utterances which I have alluded to before.I have taken advantage of this compatibility to outline my interpreter’s typology of metalinguistic demonstrations. Whether that effort was entirely successful or not, I think it has incidentally provided an excellent testing ground for the general theory. If only in that respect, the attempt was worth a try, since it shed light on the importance of pre-interpretative processes and on the conventional encoding of aspects of meaning that are otherwise heavily dependent on speaker’s intentions.Finally, I believe that the work doen in Chapter 8 has brought to the fore a number of question that deserve to be investigated at greater length in future. There are still dark areas in the study of world/language hybrids, but there also more general questions, e.g. regarding grammaticality and iconicity that need looking into. / Doctorat en philosophie et lettres, Orientation langue et littérature / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

This dissertation investigates the comprehension of indirect requests (IRs). Focusing on English and French, it proposes that IRs such as Can you + verbal phrase (for short, Can you VP?) achieve an optimal communicative efficiency because, while they entail extra processing costs, they match the expected level of politeness in many contexts. The approach taken combines Talmy’s force dynamic semantics with a traditional perspective in philosophy of language drawing on speech act theory. First, I sketch a theoretically viable and empirically plausible definition of directive speech acts, and provide a naturalistic explanation of why directives result in obligations for addressees. According to this definition, a directive speech act consists in a force exerted by a speaker towards an addressee’s performance of some action, with a prima facie obligation created for the addressee as a result. Consistently with this definition, I propose that imperative sentences are a convenient means to perform directives insofar as they encode a force dynamic pattern that is compatible with, but distinct from, the force exertion pattern that characterizes directives. I develop a similar analysis for You should/must VP declarative sentences. By contrast, I argue that, if interrogative sentences can be used in the performance of directives such as questioning, they do so by virtue of their incompleteness.To satisfactorily account for the variety of utterances that can be used as directives, I propose a typology based on the formal criterion of (in)directness and on the processing criterion of primariness/secondariness. Three factors are furthermore predicted to influence the processing of IRs: conventionality of means, degree of standardization, and degree of illocutionary force salience. This typology underpins an exhaustive review of experimental work on the comprehension of directives, in which I conclude that further investigation into the processing of IRs is necessary. In particular, the influence of these three factors on the processing, and, in particular, on the primariness/secondariness of IRs is left unexplored.In three eye-tracking experiments with native speakers of French, I put to the test four hypotheses. First, I hypothesize that the more an expression is standardized for the performance of IRs, the more likely it will be understood as an IR, and the more likely the IR will be primary rather than secondary. Second, because expressions such as Can you VP? used as IRs also have a direct interpretation, they should entail extra processing costs relative to their imperative and interrogative direct counterparts. Third, assuming they are direct, You must VP requests should be understood like imperatives requests, and they should not activate the assertive force. Fourth, the high degree of directive illocutionary force salience contributed by the adverb please should increase the likelihood of an IR interpretation and the likelihood that the IR will be primary. In Experiment 1, I show that IR interpretations tend to be more frequent for highly standardized IRs relative to their less standardized counterparts. I also demonstrate that interpreting the highly standardized Can you VP? and the less standardized Is it possible to VP? as IRs does not activate their “ability question” illocutionary meaning. The same finding holds, in Experiment 2, for the declaratives You can VP and It is possible to VP. The data of Experiment 2 indicate that, like imperative sentences, You must VP does not activate the assertive illocutionary force. Another finding of Experiment 1 is that Can you VP? and Is it possible to VP? can be understood as primary IRs, but these expressions nonetheless impose extra processing costs when they are interpreted as direct questions. In Experiment 3, I find that the high degree of directive force salience contributed by please increases the likelihood of an IR interpretation regardless of the degree of standardization of the expression. However, the presence of please has no significant influence on the processing of IRs.Turning to the production of directives, I address the issue of why speakers use IRs despite the extra processing costs entailed by these expressions. In a production task experiment where addressee status is manipulated, I test the hypothesis that Can you VP? IRs are used to trigger extra politeness effects absent in imperatives. A second hypothesis is that speakers should avoid imperatives and obligation declaratives such as You should/must VP because these request forms are directly compatible with force exertion at the pragmatic level. Rather, they should prefer indirect request forms such as ability interrogatives. Third, Can you VP? it should be more frequent than Is it possible to VP? in the data. A first important finding is that higher addressee status does not increase the frequency of Can you VP? interrogatives relative to other request forms. Instead of using Can you VP? more often when they address higher status people, speakers use specific politeness markers, which disconfirms the hypothesis that Can you VP? is used to convey extra politeness effects. The second hypothesis is confirmed, insofar as the data collected with this production task contain a vast majority of ability interrogatives, and imperatives and obligation declaratives are absent. Third, in line with the standardization hypothesis, Can you VP? occur much more often in the data than Is it possible to VP?. / Doctorat en Langues, lettres et traductologie / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Cette thèse étudie le chant "khap" de l’ethnie des Tai Dam du Laos à partir de la notion de modèle musical. Abordé au travers du concept de la pertinence, son principal objectif est la mise en lumière des compétences liées au chant, c’est-à-dire des connaissances abstraites nécessaires à l’interprétation et la catégorisation du chant. Fil rouge de ce travail, c’est au départ de la notion de modèle que sont construits les différents chapitres. Partant d’une considération d’ordre musical, sont mis au jour les mécanismes de transmission du chant, les rapports entre tons parlés et chantés, ainsi que les différents mécanismes de catégorisation musicale et identitaire. La thèse montre l’imbrication de chacun de ces aspects et la pertinence de la mobilisation de plusieurs disciplines dans la réalisation de cette recherche :musicologie, anthropologie et linguistique. C’est dans une perspective intégrant les points de vue étiques et émiques et par le développement d’une méthodologie adaptée aux particularités du sujet que sont discutés les différents axes de la recherche. / This research studies the singing named "khap" of Tai Dam ethnic group in Laos, through the notion of musical model. Its main objective, approached with the concept of relevance, is to highlight the competences linked to the singing, that is to say the abstract knowledge needed for the interpretation and the categorisation of "khap Tai Dam". The principle of musical model is the common theme of this research, and is the starting point of every chapter. Starting from musical considerations, this PhD highlights the mechanisms of musical transmission, the relationships between spoken and musical tones, as well as the different mechanisms of musical categorisation and identity categorisation. This work shows the interweaving of every of those aspects and the relevance of using different disciplines: musicology, anthropology and linguistic. The different lines of this work are approached with a perspective mobilizing etic and emic perspectives, and follow a methodology adapted to the specificities of the topic. / Doctorat en Sciences politiques et sociales / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished