Submitted by Ana Maria Fiscina Sampaio (fiscina@bahia.fiocruz.br) on 2013-11-06T17:53:22Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Theo de Araújo Santos Corpusculos lipídios e eicosanoides nos momentos iniciais...pdf: 8310647 bytes, checksum: 79f3b7453e377fceaa874dda0b7901fe (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2013-11-06T17:53:22Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Theo de Araújo Santos Corpusculos lipídios e eicosanoides nos momentos iniciais...pdf: 8310647 bytes, checksum: 79f3b7453e377fceaa874dda0b7901fe (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Universidade Federal da Bahia. Faculdade de Medicina da Bahia. Salvador, BA, Brasil / Fundação Oswaldo Cruz. Centro de Pesquisas Gonçalo Moniz. Salvador, BA, Brasil / Corpúsculos lipídicos são organelas citoplasmáticas envolvidas na produção de eicosanoides em leucócitos. Eicosanoides como as prostaglandinas têm sido envolvidos no controle da resposta inflamatória e imunológica. A saliva de Lutzomyia longipalpis participa do estabelecimento e desenvolvimento da doença pela modulação das respostas hemostática, imunológica e inflamatória do hospedeiro favorecendo a infecção. Entretanto, o papel dos eicosanoides nos momentos iniciais da infecção por Leishmania ainda não foi esclarecido, assim como a participação da saliva neste contexto. Aqui, nós investigamos o papel dos eicosanoides induzidos pela saliva de L. longipalpis e produzidos pela Leishmania infantum chagasi na infecção. O sonicado de glândula salivar (SGS) de L. longipalis induziu um aumento no número de CLs em macrófagos de maneira dose e tempo dependente, o qual esteve correlacionado com o aumento de PGE2 nos sobrenadante de cultura. As enzimas COX- 2 e PGE-sintase foram co-localizadas nos CLs induzidos pela saliva e a produção de PGE2 foi reduzida pelo tratamento com NS-398, um inibidor de COX-2. Nós verificamos que o SGS rapidamente estimulou a fosforilação de ERK-1/2 e PKC-α e a inibição farmacológica dessas vias inibiu a produção de PGE2 pelos macrófagos estimulados com SGS. Em seguida, nós avaliamos o efeito da saliva de L. longipalpis sobre a produção de eicosanoides durante a infecção por L. i. chagasi no modelo peritoneal murino. Nós observamos que a saliva aumentou a viabilidade intracelular de L. i. chagasi tanto em neutrófilos como em neutrófilos recrutados para a cavidade peritoneal. As células recrutadas para cavidade peritoneal apresentaram maiores níveis da relação PGE2/LTB4 e o pré-tratamento com NS-398 reverteu o efeito da saliva sobre a viabilidade intracelular dos parasitas. Parasitas como Leishmania são capazes de produzir PGs utilizando uma maquinaria enzimática própria. Neste estudo nós descrevemos a dinâmica de formação e a distribuição celular dos CLs em L. i. chagasi bem como a participação desta organela na produção de PGs. A quantidade de CLs aumentou durante a metaciclogênese assim como a expressão de PGF2α sintase (PGFS), sendo esta enzima co-localizada nos CLs. A adição de ácido araquidônico AA à cultura de L. i. chagasi aumentou a quantidade de CLs por parasita, bem como a secreção de PGF2α. A infecção com as diferentes formas de L. i. chagasi não foi capaz de estimular a formação de CLs na célula hospedeira. Por outro lado, os parasitas intracelulares apresentaram maiores quantidades de CLs. A infecção estimulou uma rápida expressão de COX-2, mas não foi detectado aumento na produção de PGF2α nos sobrenadantes. Por fim, nós verificamos a presença do receptor de PGF2α (FP) nos vacúolos parasitóforos de macrófagos infectados com L. i. chagasi. O prétratamento das células com um antagonista do receptor FP inibiu os índices de infecção de forma dose-dependente. Em conjunto, nossos dados apontam que os eicosanoides desempenham um papel crucial para evasão da resposta imune durante os momentos iniciais da infecção por L. i. chagasi com diferentes contribuições do parasita, do vetor e da célula hospedeira neste contexto. / Lipid bodies (LB) are cytoplasmic organelles involved in eicosanoid production in leukocytes. Eicosanoids as prostaglandins (PG) have been implicated in the inflammatory and immune response control. Sand fly saliva participates of the establishment and development of the disease by modulation of haemostatic, inflammatory and immunological response of the host favoring the infection. However, the role of eicosanoids in the early steps of the infection remains to be investigated as well as the role of the sand fly in this context. Herein, we investigated the role of eicosanoids trigged by L. longipalpis saliva and produced by Leishmania infantum chagasi during infection. L. longipalpis salivary gland sonicate (SGS) induced an increase of LB number in the macrophages of a dose and time dependent manner, which was correlated with an increase of PGE2 release in the culture supernatants. Furthermore, COX-2 and PGE-synthase co-localized within the LBs induced by L. longipalpis saliva and PGE2 production was abrogated by treatment with NS-398, a COX-2 inhibitor. We verified SGS rapidly triggered ERK-1/2 and PKC-α phosphorylation, and blockage of the ERK-1/2 and PKC-α pathways inhibited the SGS effect on PGE2 production by macrophages. Next, we evaluated the effect of the L. longipalpis saliva in the eicosanoid production during L. i. chagasi in the murine peritoneal model. We observed SGS increased parasite viability inside recruited monocytes and neutrophils. In this regarding, SGS-recruited cells to peritoneal cavity displayed an increase in the levels of PGE2/LTB4 and the pre-treatment with NS-398 abrogated the sand fly saliva effect on parasite viability. Parasites as Leishmania are capable to produce PGs using enzymatic machinery itself. Parasite LBs amounts increased during metacyclogensis as well as the PGF2α synthase (PGFS) expression and this enzyme was colocalized on LBs. Exogenous addition of aracdonic acid in the Leishmania cultures increased LB number per parasite and PGF2α release. Macrophage infection with different forms of L. i. chagasi was not able to stimulate LB formation in the host cell. Notwithstanding, Leishmania infection upregulated COX-2 expression but this was not followed by PGF2α release by macrophages. We detected PGF2α receptor (FP) on the Leishmania PV surface. In addition, the pre-treatment of the host cells with a selective antagonist of FP, dramatically hampered Leishmania infection in a dose dependent manner. In set, our data point out a crucial role for eicosanoids to immune response evasion during early steps of L. i. chagasi infection with different contributions of parasite, vector and host cells in this context.

Orientadores: Gonçalves Amarante Guimarães Pereira, Laudiene Evangelista Meyer / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-20T16:23:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Toni_IsabellaMacedo_M.pdf: 5580969 bytes, checksum: 6316597533645e14651af065e8968c0a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: Há no mundo um consenso sobre a necessidade de se encontrar fontes de carbono renováveis para a substituição do petróleo. O cultivo de microalgas tem sido considerado uma alternativa promissora para suprir essas cadeias carbônicas e biocombustíveis, visto que são microorganismos fotossintetizantes que podem acumular grandes quantidades de triacilglicerol (TAG) como reserva energética. A transesterificação desses TAG por alcoóis simples gera alquil-esteres, cujas propriedades são muito próximas às encontradas na composição do biodiesel. O glicerol, subproduto da produção de biodiesel, pode ser convertido em propeno, bloco de construção fundamental para a indústria petroquímica. A obtenção de TAG de microalgas requer o cultivo do microorganismo, a recuperação da biomassa do meio líquido e o processamento dessa biomassa para separação da fração lipídica. As etapas de recuperação da biomassa e obtenção da fração lipídica são estágios realmente críticos, de modo que são considerados os principais obstáculos para a viabilidade econômica da produção. A indução artificial da secreção das reservas lipídicas é uma idéia promissora que pode viabilizar a produção de lipídios por microalgas em escala industrial. Em vista disso, o objetivo do presente trabalho foi o desenvolvimento de bases metodológicas para a construção de um vetor que proporcione comprometimento de das reservas lipídicas com o processo de exocitose. Alguns membros da família SNARE são responsáveis por comprometer vesículas com a via exocítica. Propriedade que pode ser artificialmente introduzida nas reservas lipídicas por meio do domínio SNARE. A busca no genoma de Neochloris oleoabundans, microalga com alto teor lipídico sequenciada por nosso laboratório, indicou 19 sequências pertencentes à família SNARE. A análise dessas sequencias indicou o gene responsável pela via exocítica. A principal forma de reserva energética de microalga são vesículas de TAG chamadas de oilbodies. Em plantas é encontrada a proteína oleosina inserida nesses oilbodies, a cuja existência relaciona-se a um aumento de óleo nas sementes. A oleosina pode ser um bom candidato para carregar o motivo SNARE para as reservas lipídicas dos oilbodies, levando-os a se fusionarem com a membrana plasmática. A necessidade de se confirmar a funcionalidade da oleosina em microalgas levou a construção de um plasmídeo contendo a ORF para oleosina fundida no mesmo quadro de leitura com uma marca visual. A construção foi adaptada para testes em Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, uma miroalga modelo. Uma marca de seleção por antibiótico foi adicionada a fim de se facilitar a busca por tranformantes. Uma vez confirmado o funcionamento da oleosina, uma construção contendo a proteína ligada ao domínio SNARE de exocitose pode ser construída para N. oleoabundans ou qualquer microalga com potencial industrial. Uma tecnologia como essa permitiria a recuperação dos lipídios diretamente do meio de cultura, eliminando etapas críticas para a produção de hidrocarbonetos em larga escala a partir de microalgas e tem potencial de aumentar a taxa de conversão da energia capturada da biomassa em óleo / Abstract: It is worldwide accepted the vital need to find renewable carbon sources to replace the use of petrol. Microalgae can storage triacylglycerol (TAG) as their major energy reservoir. Hence, culturing these photosynthetic microorganisms has been considered a promising alternative for renewable carbon sources and biofuels production. TAG transestherification produces alquil-esther, which properties are very similar to those found in biodiesel. Furthermore, a byproduct of biodiesel production is glicerol, which can be easily converted to propen, the fundamental block for petro-chemistry industry. Algal TAG production requires the cultivation of the microorganism, followed by dewatering and processing of its biomass in order to obtain the lipid fraction. These last two processes are considered critical and may be regarded as one of the primary obstacles to economic viability of production. Thus, engineered organisms that actively secrete their triacylglycerol content would afford the production of lipids by microalgae in an industrial scale. The aim of this study, therefore, is to establish methodological basis for the development of a molecular device which commits lipid reserves in the exocytosis pathway. Some proteins of SNARE family have the ability to engage their associated vesicles to exocytosis. This property can be artificially introduced into the lipid reserves through the SNARE domain. The triacylglycerol is stored in vesicles called oilbodies, which are the main energy storage in microalgae. Seed plants oilbodies contain imbibed in their membranes proteins called Oleosins, which existence was related to increase in oil reservoir. The anchoring ability of oleosins may be used to carry the SNARE motif to oilbodies, causing them to fuse with the plasma membrane. The genome of Neochloris oleoabundans, a high lipid content microalga, was sequenced by our laboratory. Genome wide analysis revealed 19 SNAREs sequences. The probable SNARE required in the exocytosis pathway and the domains were identified and characterized. Aiming to confirm the functionality of oleosin in microalgae, a plasmid containing an oleosin fused in frame with a GFP reporter was built for Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, a model microalga. An antibiotic resistance marker was added to allow efficient screening of transformed cells. Once the oloeosin function is confirmed in the model, a molecular device comprising the exocytic SNARE domain connected to an oleosin can be built. A device like this can be adapted not only for N. oleoabundans, but also to any microalgae with industrial use potential. Such technology could enable the recovery of TAG lipids directly from the culture medium and would eliminate costly stages of high-scale hydrocarbon production from microalgae. Moreover, it could potentially improve the conversion rate of energy to lipids / Mestrado / Genetica de Microorganismos / Mestre em Genética e Biologia Molecular

Les corps lipidiques (CLs) sont des organites de stockage de lipides neutres rencontrés dans des organismes très variés, depuis les procaryotes jusqu’aux organismes complexes (animaux, végétaux). La surface des CLs est constituée d’une monocouche de phospholipides (PLs) entourant un coeur hydrophobe dans lequel sont stockés les lipides neutres. La monocouche de PLs est associée plus ou moins étroitement avec des protéines structurales, capables de stabiliser les CLs et d’accompagner certaines de leurs modifications morphologiques. Dans les graines de plantes oléagineuses, les CLs sont stabilisés par les oléosines. Ces protéines contiennent le plus long domaine hydrophobe connu (70 résidus) situé entre deux extrémités N et C-terminales hydrophiles. Leur mode d’association avec les CLs n’est pas connu et la littérature fait état de résultats contradictoires concernant leur structure secondaire. Nous avons montré que les oléosines de graines d’Arabidopsis thaliana sont maintenues en solution par différentes catégories de surfactants, comme les détergents anioniques ou des polymères amphiphiles appelés amphipols (Apols). La détermination de la structure secondaire des oléosines maintenues en solution dans ces différents surfactants, par dichroïsme circulaire utilisant le rayonnement synchrotron, a mis en évidence des profils contrastés. Les détergents chargés augmentent le contenu en hélices α des oléosines alors que des proportions plus importantes de feuillets β sont observées avec le détergent zwitterionique (Foscholine-12) ou les Apols. Afin d’obtenir un profil structural modèle dans un système proche du naturel, nous avons réalisé une expression hétérologue d’une isoforme d’oléosine pour la cibler dans les CLs de Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Les CLs purifiés de levures restent intacts et contiennent une forte majorité de cette isoforme d’oléosine à leur surface. Nous avons été les premiers à montrer que les oléosines étaient repliées dans un tel environnement, avec un profil structural majoritairement β. Celui-ci se rapproche du profil observé en Foscholine-12. Ce détergent est par conséquent un outil de choix pour envisager des études structurales plus résolutives (structures tridimensionnelles). / Lipid Bodies (LBs) are neutral lipid storage organelles found in various organisms from procaryotic cells to complex organisms. These neutral lipids are packed into the core of the particle which is surrounded by a phospholipid monolayer. The surface of LBs is more or less tightly associated with structural proteins involved in their stabilization and able to assist modifications of their shape or size. In oleaginous seeds, LBs are stabilized by oleosins. These proteins contain the longest known hydrophobic domain (70 residues) flanked by hydrophilic N and C-termini. The way of association of these proteins with LBs is poorly known and secondary structure descriptions in the literature are contradictory. We have shown that Arabidopsis thaliana seed oleosins could be solubilized by various surfactants such as detergents or amphiphatic polymers called amphipols (Apols). Secondary structure determination of solubilized oleosins using synchrotron radiation circular dichroism gave contrasted profiles. Negatively charged detergents increase the α-helix content of oleosins whereas the zwitterionic detergent (Foscholine-12) or Apols allow higher proportions of β-sheets. In order to get closer to the natural environment of olesins, we have opted for the heterologous expression of one oleosin isoform in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This approach allows the biological targeting and insertion of oleosins into cytosolic LBs. Purified yeast LBs remain intact and contain a large majority of oleosins at their surface. In this natural like environment, oleosins are folded and contain a majority of β-sheets. This secondary structure profile is close to that of oleosins solubilized by Foscholin-12, making it a suitable detergent for more resolutive structural studies (three-dimensional structures).

No description available.

Les composés hydrophobes sont connus comme des sources de carbone qui peuvent être utilisées par les levures comme Yarrowia lipolytica pour de multiples applications. Ces composés causent parfois des perturbations aux levures mais sont aussi rapportés comme conférant aux cellules une certaine résistance contre les stress environnementaux. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, nous avons étudié le rôle de l'oléate de méthyle comme source de carbone sur la résistance de la levure Y. lipolytica en réponse au choc d’un composé amphiphile, la -dodécalactone, et au stress thermique. Les résultats obtenus montrent que les cellules ayant poussé sur oléate sont beaucoup plus résistantes au choc lactone ainsi qu’au stress thermique que les cellules ayant poussé sur glucose. L’action de la lactone se trouve au niveau de la membrane où elle cause une fluidification membranaire et une déplétion de stérols qui sont considérés comme la cause de la mort cellulaire. Ce travail met en évidence le rôle des corps lipidiques dans la réponse cellulaire qui se manifeste de différentes manières en réponse à ces stress. Une accumulation des corps lipidiques est importante pour la résistance de la cellule aux stress. Les cellules ayant poussé sur glucose transforment leur stérol libre en esters de stéryle pour former les corps lipidiques en réponse au choc lactone, ce qui augmente leur sensibilité. Tandis que les cellules ayant poussé sur oléate qui ont accumulé des corps lipidiques pendant leur croissance ont tendance à convertir leurs esters de stéryle en stérol libre pour compenser la déplétion de stérol membranaire causée par la lactone ce qui diminue leur sensibilité. L'homéostasie de l'ergostérol, liée à la présence de corps lipidiques, semble donc jouer un rôle clé dans la résistance cellulaire à ces stress. Ce travail relève aussi que la présence de lipides modifie le processus de mort cellulaire programmée de Y. lipolytica en réponse à un stress thermique. / Hydrophobe compounds are known as carbon source which could be used by yeast like Yarrowia lipolytica for multi purposes. These compounds may cause disturbance in yeast but also reported as confer some resistance to cells towards environmental stress. Here, we study the role of methyl oleate as carbon source on resistance of Y. lipolytica in response to stress of an amphiphilic compound, -dodecalactone, and to heat shock. Results show that cells grown in oleate are more resistant to these stresses than cells grown in glucose. This work reveals the role of the lipids bodies in cells response to stress and that cells manifest in different ways in response to these stresses. An accumulation of lipids bodies is required for the resistance of cells towards stress as glucose grown cells transform their free sterol into steryl esters to form the lipids bodies in response to lactone shock which increases their sensibility towards lactone. In the case of oleate grown cells which accumulated the lipids bodies during their growth, these cells have tendency to convert their steryl esters into free sterol in order to compensate sterol depletion causing by lactone shock and decrease their sensibility. Homeostasis of ergosterol, linked with presence of lipids bodies, seems to be the key for cellular resistance to stresses. This work reveals also that the presence of lipids bodies modifies the processes of programmed cells death in response to heat shock.

O escorpião Tityus serrulatus é considerado uma das espécies mais perigosas para os seres humanos no Brasil, e sua peçonha induz resposta inflamatória local e sistêmica. Neste projeto, tivemos como objetivo estudar a produção de mediadores inflamatórios, as vias de ativação celular e os receptores da imunidade inata responsáveis pelo reconhecimento da peçonha do escorpião T. serrulatus (TsV), bem como de suas toxinas. Nós demonstramos que TsV, e suas toxinas Ts1 e Ts6 induzem a produção de NO, IL-6 e TNF-? por células J774.1, as quais podem ser potencializadas pela presença de LPS. No entanto, Ts2 apresenta atividade anti-inflamatória por induzir produção de IL-10 e inibe a liberação de NO, IL-6 e TNF-?, induzida pelo LPS. Mostramos ainda que Ts2 ou Ts6 isoladas do TsV, além das citocinas, induzem a produção dos mediadores lipídicos (LTB4 e PGE2), e estes contribuem para o recrutamento de leucócitos para a cavidade peritoneal. Em conjunto, os nossos dados demonstraram que Ts2 e Ts6 induzem inflamação por mecanismos dependentes da produção de citocinas e mediadores lipídicos, e que Ts2 pode desempenhar papel regulador da resposta. No entanto, os mecanismos responsáveis pelo reconhecimento da peçonha e indução da liberação de mediadores inflamatórios por células de mamíferos, são desconhecidos. Assim, dando continuidade aos nossos estudos, demonstramos que os receptores TLR2, TLR4 e CD14 reconhecem TsV, e medeiam a produção de citocinas e mediadores lipídicos. Além disso, nós demonstramos que TsV ativa NF-?B dependente de MyD88, e o fator c-Jun, independente de MyD88. Semelhante ao TsV, a sua toxina majoritária, Ts1, induz a fosforilação de NF-?B dependente de MyD88, via reconhecimento por TLR2 e TLR4, enquanto a ativação c-Jun é via TLR4, mas independente de MyD88. Dentro deste contexto, nós propusemos o termo Padrões Moleculares Associados à Venenos (VAMP) para se referir às moléculas que são introduzidas no hospedeiro por picadas e são reconhecidas por receptores de reconhecimento padrão (PRRs), resultando em inflamação. Demonstramos ainda, a formação de corpúsculos lipídios (CLs) e a geração de eicosanóides, após o reconhecimento do TsV por TLR2 e TLR4. Nossos dados mostraram que a formação de eicosanóides se correlaciona com a formação dos CLs, que por sua vez são dependentes de TLR2 e TLR4, e da ativação de PPAR?, sugerindo que este receptor nuclear pode modular a produção de citocinas pró-inflamatórias. Assim, concluímos que PPAR? pode ser um candidato-alvo atrativo para novas estratégias terapêuticas para prevenção dos efeitos deletérios resultantes da intensa liberação sistêmica de mediadores inflamatórios após envenenamento. / Tityus serrulatus is the scorpion considered one of the most dangerous species to humans in Brazil, which venom induces local and systemic inflammatory response. In this project, we aimed to study In this project, we aimed to study the inflammatory mediators production, cell activation and receptors of innate immunity responsible for recognition of the venom of the scorpion T. serrulatus (TsV) as well as their toxins. We have demonstrated that TsV and their toxins Ts1 and Ts6 induce NO, IL-6 and TNF-? production in J774.1 cells, which may be potentiated by presence of LPS. However, Ts2 exhibits anti-inflammatory activity due induction of IL-10 production and inhibits the release of NO, IL- 6 and TNF-? induced by LPS. We also show that Ts2 or Ts6 isolated of TsV, besides of the cytokines, induce the production of lipid mediators (LTB4 and PGE2), and these mediators contribute to leukocytes recruitment into the peritoneal cavity. Taken together, our data demonstrated that Ts2 and Ts6 induce inflammation by mechanisms dependent on the production of cytokines and lipid mediators, and that Ts2 may play regulatory role on the cell response. Furthermore, continuing our studies, we demonstrated that TLR2, TLR4 and CD14 receptors recognize TsV, mediating cytokines and lipid mediators production. We also showed TsV MyD88- dependent activation of NF-?B, and a MyD88-independent activation of the factor c-Jun. Similar to TsV, the majority toxin Ts1 induces MyD88-dependent phosphorylation of NF-kB via TLR2 and TLR4 recognition, while the c-Jun activation is through TLR4 recognition, but independent of MyD88. Within this context, we propose the term Venom-Associated Molecular Pattern (VAMP), to refer molecules that are introduced into the host by st ings and recognized by PRRs, resulting in inflammation. Finally, we investigated the formation of lipid bodies (LBs) and generation of eicosanoids, through TsV recognition by TLR2 and TLR4. Our data showed that eicosanoid production correlates with the LBs formation, which are dependent on TLR2, TLR4 and PPAR? activation, suggesting that this nuclear receptor can modulate cytokines inflammatory. Thus, we suggest that PPAR? may be an attractive candidate target for novel therapeutic strategies to prevent the deleterious effects of intense systemic release of inflammatory mediators after envenomation.

O escorpião Tityus serrulatus é considerado uma das espécies mais perigosas para os seres humanos no Brasil, e sua peçonha induz resposta inflamatória local e sistêmica. Neste projeto, tivemos como objetivo estudar a produção de mediadores inflamatórios, as vias de ativação celular e os receptores da imunidade inata responsáveis pelo reconhecimento da peçonha do escorpião T. serrulatus (TsV), bem como de suas toxinas. Nós demonstramos que TsV, e suas toxinas Ts1 e Ts6 induzem a produção de NO, IL-6 e TNF-? por células J774.1, as quais podem ser potencializadas pela presença de LPS. No entanto, Ts2 apresenta atividade anti-inflamatória por induzir produção de IL-10 e inibe a liberação de NO, IL-6 e TNF-?, induzida pelo LPS. Mostramos ainda que Ts2 ou Ts6 isoladas do TsV, além das citocinas, induzem a produção dos mediadores lipídicos (LTB4 e PGE2), e estes contribuem para o recrutamento de leucócitos para a cavidade peritoneal. Em conjunto, os nossos dados demonstraram que Ts2 e Ts6 induzem inflamação por mecanismos dependentes da produção de citocinas e mediadores lipídicos, e que Ts2 pode desempenhar papel regulador da resposta. No entanto, os mecanismos responsáveis pelo reconhecimento da peçonha e indução da liberação de mediadores inflamatórios por células de mamíferos, são desconhecidos. Assim, dando continuidade aos nossos estudos, demonstramos que os receptores TLR2, TLR4 e CD14 reconhecem TsV, e medeiam a produção de citocinas e mediadores lipídicos. Além disso, nós demonstramos que TsV ativa NF-?B dependente de MyD88, e o fator c-Jun, independente de MyD88. Semelhante ao TsV, a sua toxina majoritária, Ts1, induz a fosforilação de NF-?B dependente de MyD88, via reconhecimento por TLR2 e TLR4, enquanto a ativação c-Jun é via TLR4, mas independente de MyD88. Dentro deste contexto, nós propusemos o termo Padrões Moleculares Associados à Venenos (VAMP) para se referir às moléculas que são introduzidas no hospedeiro por picadas e são reconhecidas por receptores de reconhecimento padrão (PRRs), resultando em inflamação. Demonstramos ainda, a formação de corpúsculos lipídios (CLs) e a geração de eicosanóides, após o reconhecimento do TsV por TLR2 e TLR4. Nossos dados mostraram que a formação de eicosanóides se correlaciona com a formação dos CLs, que por sua vez são dependentes de TLR2 e TLR4, e da ativação de PPAR?, sugerindo que este receptor nuclear pode modular a produção de citocinas pró-inflamatórias. Assim, concluímos que PPAR? pode ser um candidato-alvo atrativo para novas estratégias terapêuticas para prevenção dos efeitos deletérios resultantes da intensa liberação sistêmica de mediadores inflamatórios após envenenamento. / Tityus serrulatus is the scorpion considered one of the most dangerous species to humans in Brazil, which venom induces local and systemic inflammatory response. In this project, we aimed to study In this project, we aimed to study the inflammatory mediators production, cell activation and receptors of innate immunity responsible for recognition of the venom of the scorpion T. serrulatus (TsV) as well as their toxins. We have demonstrated that TsV and their toxins Ts1 and Ts6 induce NO, IL-6 and TNF-? production in J774.1 cells, which may be potentiated by presence of LPS. However, Ts2 exhibits anti-inflammatory activity due induction of IL-10 production and inhibits the release of NO, IL- 6 and TNF-? induced by LPS. We also show that Ts2 or Ts6 isolated of TsV, besides of the cytokines, induce the production of lipid mediators (LTB4 and PGE2), and these mediators contribute to leukocytes recruitment into the peritoneal cavity. Taken together, our data demonstrated that Ts2 and Ts6 induce inflammation by mechanisms dependent on the production of cytokines and lipid mediators, and that Ts2 may play regulatory role on the cell response. Furthermore, continuing our studies, we demonstrated that TLR2, TLR4 and CD14 receptors recognize TsV, mediating cytokines and lipid mediators production. We also showed TsV MyD88- dependent activation of NF-?B, and a MyD88-independent activation of the factor c-Jun. Similar to TsV, the majority toxin Ts1 induces MyD88-dependent phosphorylation of NF-kB via TLR2 and TLR4 recognition, while the c-Jun activation is through TLR4 recognition, but independent of MyD88. Within this context, we propose the term Venom-Associated Molecular Pattern (VAMP), to refer molecules that are introduced into the host by st ings and recognized by PRRs, resulting in inflammation. Finally, we investigated the formation of lipid bodies (LBs) and generation of eicosanoids, through TsV recognition by TLR2 and TLR4. Our data showed that eicosanoid production correlates with the LBs formation, which are dependent on TLR2, TLR4 and PPAR? activation, suggesting that this nuclear receptor can modulate cytokines inflammatory. Thus, we suggest that PPAR? may be an attractive candidate target for novel therapeutic strategies to prevent the deleterious effects of intense systemic release of inflammatory mediators after envenomation.

Les dinoflagellés sont des eucaryotes unicellulaires retrouvés dans la plupart des écosystèmes aquatiques du globe. Ces organismes amènent une contribution substantielle à la production primaire des océans, soit en tant que membre du phytoplancton, soit en tant que symbiontes des anthozoaires formant les récifs coralliens. Malheureusement, ce rôle écologique majeur est souvent négligé face à la capacité de certaines espèces de dinoflagellés à former des fleurs d'eau, parfois d'étendue et de durée spectaculaires. Ces floraisons d'algues, communément appelées "marées rouges", peuvent avoir de graves conséquences sur les écosystèmes côtiers, sur les industries de la pêche et du tourisme, ainsi que sur la santé humaine. Un des facteurs souvent corrélé avec la formation des fleurs d'eau est une augmentation dans la concentration de nutriments, notamment l’azote et le phosphore. Le nitrate est un des composants principaux retrouvés dans les eaux de ruissellement agricoles, mais également la forme d'azote bioaccessible la plus abondante dans les écosystèmes marins. Ainsi, l'agriculture humaine a contribué à magnifier significativement les problèmes associés aux marées rouges au niveau mondial. Cependant, la pollution ne peut pas expliquer à elle seule la formation et la persistance des fleurs d'eau, qui impliquent plusieurs facteurs biotiques et abiotiques. Il est particulièrement difficile d'évaluer l'importance relative qu'ont les ajouts de nitrate par rapport à ces autres facteurs, parce que le métabolisme du nitrate chez les dinoflagellés est largement méconnu. Le but principal de cette thèse vise à remédier à cette lacune. J'ai choisi Lingulodinium polyedrum comme modèle pour l'étude du métabolisme du nitrate, parce que ce dinoflagellé est facilement cultivable en laboratoire et qu'une étude transcriptomique a récemment fourni une liste de gènes pratiquement complète pour cette espèce. Il est également intéressant que certaines composantes moléculaires de la voie du nitrate chez cet organisme soient sous contrôle circadien. Ainsi, dans ce projet, j'ai utilisé des analyses physiologiques, biochimiques, transcriptomiques et bioinformatiques pour enrichir nos connaissances sur le métabolisme du nitrate des dinoflagellés et nous permettre de mieux apprécier le rôle de l'horloge circadienne dans la régulation de cette importante voie métabolique primaire. Je me suis tout d'abord penché sur les cas particuliers où des floraisons de dinoflagellés sont observées dans des conditions de carence en azote. Cette idée peut sembler contreintuitive, parce que l'ajout de nitrate plutôt que son épuisement dans le milieu est généralement associé aux floraisons d'algues. Cependant, j’ai découvert que lorsque du nitrate était ajouté à des cultures initialement carencées ou enrichies en azote, celles qui s'étaient acclimatées au stress d'azote arrivaient à survivre près de deux mois à haute densité cellulaire, alors que les cellules qui n'étaient pas acclimatées mourraient après deux semaines. En condition de carence d'azote sévère, les cellules arrivaient à survivre un peu plus de deux semaines et ce, en arrêtant leur cycle cellulaire et en diminuant leur activité photosynthétique. L’incapacité pour ces cellules carencées à synthétiser de nouveaux acides aminés dans un contexte où la photosynthèse était toujours active a mené à l’accumulation de carbone réduit sous forme de granules d’amidon et corps lipidiques. Curieusement, ces deux réserves de carbone se trouvaient à des pôles opposés de la cellule, suggérant un rôle fonctionnel à cette polarisation. La deuxième contribution de ma thèse fut d’identifier et de caractériser les premiers transporteurs de nitrate chez les dinoflagellés. J'ai découvert que Lingulodinium ne possédait que très peu de transporteurs comparativement à ce qui est observé chez les plantes et j'ai suggéré que seuls les membres de la famille des transporteurs de nitrate de haute affinité 2 (NRT2) étaient réellement impliqués dans le transport du nitrate. Le principal transporteur chez Lingulodinium était exprimé constitutivement, suggérant que l’acquisition du nitrate chez ce dinoflagellé se fondait majoritairement sur un système constitutif plutôt qu’inductible. Enfin, j'ai démontré que l'acquisition du nitrate chez Lingulodinium était régulée par la lumière et non par l'horloge circadienne, tel qu'il avait été proposé dans une étude antérieure. Finalement, j’ai utilisé une approche RNA-seq pour vérifier si certains transcrits de composantes impliquées dans le métabolisme du nitrate de Lingulodinium étaient sous contrôle circadien. Non seulement ai-je découvert qu’il n’y avait aucune variation journalière dans les niveaux des transcrits impliqués dans le métabolisme du nitrate, j’ai aussi constaté qu’il n’y avait aucune variation journalière pour n’importe quel ARN du transcriptome de Lingulodinium. Cette découverte a démontré que l’horloge de ce dinoflagellé n'avait pas besoin de transcription rythmique pour générer des rythmes physiologiques comme observé chez les autres eukaryotes. / Dinoflagellates are unicellular eukaryotes found in most aquatic ecosystems of the world. They are major contributors to carbon fixation in the oceans, either as free-living phytoplankton or as symbionts to corals. Dinoflagellates are also infamous because some species can form spectacular blooms called red tides, which can cause serious damage to ecosystems, human health, fisheries and tourism. One of the factors often correlated with algal blooms are increases in nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus. Nitrate is one of the main components of agricultural runoffs, but also the most abundant bioavailable form of nitrogen in marine environments. Thus, agricultural activities have globally contributed to the magnification of the problems associated with red tides. However, bloom formation and persistence cannot be ascribed to human pollution alone, because other biotic and abiotic factors are at play. Particularly, it is difficult to assess the relative importance of nitrate addition over these other factors, because nitrate metabolism in dinoflagellate is mostly unknown. Filling part of this gap was the main goal of this thesis. I selected Lingulodinium polyedrum as a model for studying nitrate metabolism, because this dinoflagellate can easily be cultured in the lab and a recent transcriptomic survey has provided an almost complete gene catalogue for this species. It is also interesting that some molecular components of the nitrate pathway in this organism have been reported to be under circadian control. Thus, in this project, I used physiological, biochemical, transcriptomic and bioinformatic approaches to enrich our understanding of dinoflagellate nitrate metabolism and to increase our appreciation of the role of the circadian clock in regulating this important primary metabolic pathway. I first studied the particular case of dinoflagellate blooms that occur and persist in conditions of nitrogen depletion. This idea may seems counterintuitive, because nitrogen addition rather than depletion, is generally associated with algal blooms. However, I discovered that when nitrate was added to nitrogen-deficient or nitrogen-sufficient cultures, those that had been acclimated to nitrogen stress were able to survive for about two months at high cell densities, while non-acclimated cells died after two weeks. In conditions of severe nitrogen limitation, cells could survive a little bit more than two weeks by arresting cell division and reducing photosynthetic rates. The incapacity to synthesize new amino acids for these deprived cells in a context of on-going photosynthesis led to the accumulation of reduced carbon in the form of starch granules and lipid bodies. Interestingly, both of these carbon storage compounds were polarized in Lingulodinium cells, suggesting a functional role. The second contribution of my thesis was to identify and characterize the first nitrate transporters in dinoflagellates. I found that in contrast to plants, Lingulodinium had a reduced suite of nitrate transporters and only members of the high-affinity nitrate transporter 2 (NRT2) family were predicted to be functionally relevant in the transport of nitrate. The main transporter was constitutively expressed, which suggested that nitrate uptake in Lingulodinium was mostly a constitutive process rather than an inducible one. I also discovered that nitrate uptake in this organism was light-dependent and not a circadian-regulated process, as previously suggested. Finally, I used RNA-seq to verify if any transcripts involved in the nitrate metabolism of Lingulodinium were under circadian control. Not only did I discovered that there were no daily variations in the level of transcripts involved in nitrate metabolism, but also that there were no changes for any transcripts present in the whole transcriptome of Lingulodinium. This discovery showed that the circadian timer in this species did not require rhythmic transcription to generate biological rhythms, as observed in other eukaryotes.