Yes / Aims/hypothesis Hypoglycaemia is a major barrier to good glucose control in type 1 diabetes. Frequent hypoglycaemic episodes impair awareness of subsequent hypoglycaemic bouts. Neural changes underpinning awareness of hypoglycaemia are poorly defined and molecular mechanisms by which glial cells contribute to hypoglycaemia sensing and glucose counterregulation require further investigation. The aim of the current study was to examine whether, and by what mechanism, human primary astrocyte (HPA) function was altered by acute and recurrent low glucose (RLG). Methods To test whether glia, specifically astrocytes, could detect changes in glucose, we utilised HPA and U373 astrocytoma cells and exposed them to RLG in vitro. This allowed measurement, with high specificity and sensitivity, of RLG-associated changes in cellular metabolism. We examined changes in protein phosphorylation/expression using western blotting. Metabolic function was assessed using a Seahorse extracellular flux analyser. Immunofluorescent imaging was used to examine cell morphology and enzymatic assays were used to measure lactate release, glycogen content, intracellular ATP and nucleotide ratios. Results AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) was activated over a pathophysiologically relevant glucose concentration range. RLG produced an increased dependency on fatty acid oxidation for basal mitochondrial metabolism and exhibited hallmarks of mitochondrial stress, including increased proton leak and reduced coupling efficiency. Relative to glucose availability, lactate release increased during low glucose but this was not modified by RLG. Basal glucose uptake was not modified by RLG and glycogen levels were similar in control and RLG-treated cells. Mitochondrial adaptations to RLG were partially recovered by maintaining euglycaemic levels of glucose following RLG exposure. Conclusions/interpretation Taken together, these data indicate that HPA mitochondria are altered following RLG, with a metabolic switch towards increased fatty acid oxidation, suggesting glial adaptations to RLG involve altered mitochondrial metabolism that could contribute to defective glucose counterregulation to hypoglycaemia in diabetes. / Diabetes UK (RD Lawrence Fellowship to CB; 13/0004647); the Medical Research Council (MR/N012763/1) to KLJE, ADR and CB; and a Mary Kinross Charitable Trust PhD studentship to CB, ADR and RW to support PGWP. Additional support for this work came from awards from the British Society for Neuroendocrinology (to CB and KLJE), the Society for Endocrinology (CB), Tenovus Scotland (CB) and the University of Exeter Medical School (CB and KLJE). AR was also supported by a Royal Society Industry Fellowship.

Chaque mitochondrie contient son propre génome en de multiples copies d’ADN. Les mutations de l'ADN mitochondriales (ADNmt) sont responsables de sévères dysfonctions de la chaîne respiratoire. Le ratio entre la proportion de copies sauvages et mutantes, qualifiée d'hétéroplasmie, détermine la sévérité de la pathologie. Une des mutations les plus répandues de l'ADNmt est la mutation m.3243A>G, affectant l'ARN de transfert de la leucine. Ce variant est à l'origine du syndrome mitochondrial MELAS. Il n’existe à l’heure actuelle aucun traitement curatif pour ce syndrome. Nous avons développé une série de cybrides neuronaux porteurs de la mutation m.3243A>G a différents taux d’hétéroplasmie. Nous avons mis en évidence que de fort taux de mutations sont responsables de sévères dysfonctions de la chaîne respiratoire, d’un défaut d’assemblage précoce du complexe I ainsi qu’une réduction du renouvellement mitochondrial. Différentes stratégies métaboliques ont été employées pour compenser ces déficits. L’exposition des cellules a une restriction glucidique ou à la diète cétogène associant réduction glucidique et ajout de corps cétoniques, améliore significativement les fonctions mitochondriales après 4 semaines. Ces effets passent notamment par une restauration de l’assemblage et de l’activité du complexe I médiée ces interventions métaboliques. Par ailleurs, l’administration de la diète cétogène à un patient atteint du syndrome MELAS a déjà montré des résultats encourageants. De telles approches pourraient alors, constituées des stratégies thérapeutiques futures dans le traitement du syndrome MELAS et des maladies mitochondriales. / Each mitochondrion contains its own genome in multiple copies. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations are responsible for respiratory chain defects. The ratio of mutant to normal mtDNA, a condition known as heteroplasmy, may determine the disease severity. The m.3243A>G mutation, which affects the leucine tRNA, is one of the most common mtDNA mutation. This variant is responsible for the MELAS syndrome, a neurodegenerative disease, characterized by pseudostrokes. Unfortunately there are no curative treatments for MELAS syndrome. We have developed series of cybrid neuronal cells lines carrying the m.3243A>G mutation with different mutant loads, within the same nuclear background. High mutation load is associated to severe respiratory chain dysfunction, an early complex I assembly defect and a mitochondrial turn-over deficit. Different strategies were used to compensate the defects in the mutant cells. Cell exposure to low glucose or ketogenic diet, combining glucose reduction and the addition of ketone bodies, greatly improves mitochondrial functions after 4 weeks. Those effects are linked to a significant increase of complex I assembly and activity mediated by those metabolic interventions. In addition, a MELAS patient treated with ketogenic diet showed significant clinical improvement. Thus, metabolic approaches may constitute promising therapeutic strategies against MELAS syndrome and mitochondrial disorders.