The mechanisms by which Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase-2 (LRRK2) mutations in humans are linked to the risk of Parkinson disease (PD), Crohn’s disease and leprosy remain elusive. We hypothesized a shared role for LRRK2 in immune system functions. I discovered robust LRRK2 expression in mammalian leukocytes, foremost within cells of the innate immune system. For example, human lymph nodes, spleen, and distal ileum exhibited abundant LRRK2-positive macrophages and granulocytes, findings that were confirmed by FACS of cells collected from the same organs of adult mice. Microscopy studies revealed robust LRRK2 reactivity in infiltrating, myeloperoxidase-positive granulocytes and CD68-positive macrophages in inflammatory conditions, such as viral encephalitis, idiopathic radiculitis, terminal ileitis and abscess formation. Analysis of midbrains from idiopathic versus genetic variants of Parkinson disease (PD) revealed rare, anti-LRRK2-positive reactivity that was confined to intravascular leukocytes. Neuronal LRRK2 signals were seen in forebrain regions, consistent with reports in the literature. To explore an immunological role for Lrrk2, we first examined bone marrow-derived macrophages from PD-linked R1441C knock-in mice and wild-type (WT) animals. Following stimulation with bacterial and viral pathogens, Lrrk2 expression was increased in cells from both genotypes. In subsequent in vivo experiments using an established, nasal inoculation model of newborn mice with a virulent microbe, we detected a role for WT Lrrk2 in modifying disease outcomes, such as after reovirus (type-3 Dearing) infection. There, Lrrk2 deficiency conferred increased vulnerability to elevated viral protein levels in the brain and greater mortality rates from encephalitis in mice. In contrast, we observed an initially protective role for the PD-linked G2019S mutant in the same reovirus inoculation model; there, lower viral titers were recorded in the lungs and brain of acutely infected, Lrrk2 knock-in mice at days 3 and 11 post-inoculation (dpi), respectively. Paradoxically, in related survival studies, we observed a significantly higher (rather than the expected reduced) mortality rate during the ensuing weeks in female mice that carried the G2019S Lrrk2 mutation. Related screening for cytokine dysregulation in infected tissues of mutant mice revealed significant changes in select signaling molecules, e.g., MIG and IP10. These collective results suggest a role for mammalian LRRK2 in the innate immune system following the encounter of a virulent pathogen, which is associated with a female sex bias. An early mechanistic clue points at changes in cytokine production by infected tissue, a second at the degradation efficiency of viral proteins. We speculate that LRRK2 alleles function in the regulation of the host’s innate response to invading pathogens, which may help explain its association with three human disorders, each of which is pathogenetically associated with one or more environmental trigger. Future studies will test LRRK2’s function in other infection paradigms, expand on mechanisms underlying genotype-dependent differences in inflammation, and determine the effects of LRRK2’s kinase inhibition in in vivo models.

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Introdução: A Doença de Parkinson (DP) é a segunda doença neurodegenerativa mais comum. Os sintomas motores são decorrentes da morte de neurônios dopaminérgicos da Substância Nigra mesencefálica e por inclusões intracitoplasmáticas de ?-sinucleína, os corpúsculos de Lewy (CL). A doença pode ser o resultado de fatores ambientais agindo sobre um indivíduo geneticamente susceptível. O objetivo desse estudo foi verificar a frequência de mutações no gene PARK8/LRRK2 em uma amostra de pacientes brasileiros portadores de DP e descrever as principais correlações clínicas encontradas nos pacientes com mutações. Metodologia: Estudo transversal baseado no protocolo padronizado pelo projeto LARGE-PD (Latin American Research Consortium on The Genetics of PD) aplicado em 282 pacientes com DP recrutados de ambulatórios especializados em Distúrbios do Movimento do Hospital das Clínicas de Ribeirão Preto/USP e do Hospital São Paulo/UNIFESP, entre os anos de 2007 e 2014. O material genético colhido foi enviado para Seattle, com análise genética realizada no laboratório do Dr. Cyrus Zabetian da Universidade de Washington. Resultados: Realizado pesquisa genética para o LRRK2 em 229 pacientes de 282 pacientes que preencheram o protocolo. Quatro (1,74%) pacientes foram positivos para a mutação. Nos casos de inicio precoce, a frequência foi de apenas um caso (2,43% - 1/41). Três pacientes tinham história familiar positiva para DP (3,7% - 3/81). A idade de inicio dos sintomas variou entre 38 e 55 anos. A mutação G2019S esteve presente em 1,31% (3/229). Foi encontrado também um caso de mutação para R1441C. Conclusões: O LRRK2 se mostrou um importante gene correlacionado a DP, tendo como principal mutação a G2019S. O início dos sintomas variou entre 38 e 55 anos, sempre unilateral, com boa resposta a Levodopa. / Introduction: Parkinson\'s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease. Motor symptoms are due to the death of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain Substance Nigra and intracytoplasmic inclusions known as Lewy bodies (CL), rich in a protein called ?-synuclein. The disease can be the result of environmental factors acting on an individual genetically susceptible, multifactorial etiology. The aim of this study was to determine the frequency of mutations in the gene PARK8 / LRRK2 in a sample of brazilian patients with PD and describe the main clinical correlations in patients with mutations. Methodology: This is a crosssectional study based on a standardized protocol for LARGE-PD project (Latin American Research Consortium on The Genetics of PD) applied in 282 patients with PD recruited from specialized clinics in Movement Disorders seen at Hospital das Clínicas de Ribeirão Preto/USP and Hospital São Paulo/UNIFESP, between the years 2007 and 2014. The genetic material was sent to Seattle, and genetic analysis was performed in the laboratory of Dr. Cyrus Zabetian at the University of Washington. Results: Realized genetic research for LRRK2 in 229 patients of 282 patients who met the LARGE-PD protocol. Observed four (1,74%) patients positive for the mutation. In cases of early-onset, the frequency was only one case (2,43% - 1/41). Three patients had a family history of PD (3,7% - 3/81). The age of onset of symptoms in patients with mutations varied between 38 and 55 years. A total of PD patients with the DNA analyzed, G2019S was present in 1,31% (3/229). It was also found one case to mutation R1441C. Conclusions: The LRRK2 had great influence gene correlated with PD, the main mutation G2019S. The onset of symptoms varied between 38 and 55 years, always one-sided, with good response to levodopa.

Introdução: A Doença de Parkinson (DP) é a segunda doença neurodegenerativa mais comum. Os sintomas motores são decorrentes da morte de neurônios dopaminérgicos da Substância Nigra mesencefálica e por inclusões intracitoplasmáticas de ?-sinucleína, os corpúsculos de Lewy (CL). A doença pode ser o resultado de fatores ambientais agindo sobre um indivíduo geneticamente susceptível. O objetivo desse estudo foi verificar a frequência de mutações no gene PARK8/LRRK2 em uma amostra de pacientes brasileiros portadores de DP e descrever as principais correlações clínicas encontradas nos pacientes com mutações. Metodologia: Estudo transversal baseado no protocolo padronizado pelo projeto LARGE-PD (Latin American Research Consortium on The Genetics of PD) aplicado em 282 pacientes com DP recrutados de ambulatórios especializados em Distúrbios do Movimento do Hospital das Clínicas de Ribeirão Preto/USP e do Hospital São Paulo/UNIFESP, entre os anos de 2007 e 2014. O material genético colhido foi enviado para Seattle, com análise genética realizada no laboratório do Dr. Cyrus Zabetian da Universidade de Washington. Resultados: Realizado pesquisa genética para o LRRK2 em 229 pacientes de 282 pacientes que preencheram o protocolo. Quatro (1,74%) pacientes foram positivos para a mutação. Nos casos de inicio precoce, a frequência foi de apenas um caso (2,43% - 1/41). Três pacientes tinham história familiar positiva para DP (3,7% - 3/81). A idade de inicio dos sintomas variou entre 38 e 55 anos. A mutação G2019S esteve presente em 1,31% (3/229). Foi encontrado também um caso de mutação para R1441C. Conclusões: O LRRK2 se mostrou um importante gene correlacionado a DP, tendo como principal mutação a G2019S. O início dos sintomas variou entre 38 e 55 anos, sempre unilateral, com boa resposta a Levodopa. / Introduction: Parkinson\'s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease. Motor symptoms are due to the death of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain Substance Nigra and intracytoplasmic inclusions known as Lewy bodies (CL), rich in a protein called ?-synuclein. The disease can be the result of environmental factors acting on an individual genetically susceptible, multifactorial etiology. The aim of this study was to determine the frequency of mutations in the gene PARK8 / LRRK2 in a sample of brazilian patients with PD and describe the main clinical correlations in patients with mutations. Methodology: This is a crosssectional study based on a standardized protocol for LARGE-PD project (Latin American Research Consortium on The Genetics of PD) applied in 282 patients with PD recruited from specialized clinics in Movement Disorders seen at Hospital das Clínicas de Ribeirão Preto/USP and Hospital São Paulo/UNIFESP, between the years 2007 and 2014. The genetic material was sent to Seattle, and genetic analysis was performed in the laboratory of Dr. Cyrus Zabetian at the University of Washington. Results: Realized genetic research for LRRK2 in 229 patients of 282 patients who met the LARGE-PD protocol. Observed four (1,74%) patients positive for the mutation. In cases of early-onset, the frequency was only one case (2,43% - 1/41). Three patients had a family history of PD (3,7% - 3/81). The age of onset of symptoms in patients with mutations varied between 38 and 55 years. A total of PD patients with the DNA analyzed, G2019S was present in 1,31% (3/229). It was also found one case to mutation R1441C. Conclusions: The LRRK2 had great influence gene correlated with PD, the main mutation G2019S. The onset of symptoms varied between 38 and 55 years, always one-sided, with good response to levodopa.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder symptomatically characterized by motor dysfunction caused by the selective loss of nigral dopamine neurons within midbrain. The pathogenesis of PD remains unclear. Although, originally thought to be sporadic, about ten percent of PD is familial. The recent elucidation of mutations in genes linked to the disease has offered potential for new animal models and understanding of PD pathogenesis. DJ-1 and LRRK2 are genes linked to autosomal recessive juvenile-onset PD and autosomal-dominant late onset PD, respectively. How mutations in these two genes leads to PD remains uncertain and is plagued by poor murine models that do not recapitulate the human condition. The following dissertation attempts to characterize both mouse and fly models of DJ-1 and LRRK2 mediated PD and elucidate other genetic modifiers that may contribute to PD. Firstly, the DJ-1 null mouse model, which lacks cell death, was improved by backcrossing to a pure C57-Bl6 background. These DJ-1 null mice display a robust and progressive unilateral-to-bilateral loss of nigral neurons accompanied by motor deficits in aged mice. Secondly, a large scale screen was performed in Drosophila to determine genes that modify mutant LRRK2 toxicity in both the eye and dopaminergic neurons of the fly. The screen revealed 36 genetic interactors that either suppressed or enhanced LRRK2 induced cell death in the fly. One of these interactors was SCAR (human WAVE-2). Due to the role WAVE-2 is known to have in immune cell phagocytic function, we demonstrate that LRRK2 deficient/G2019S murine myeloid cells have impaired/enhanced phagocytic activity which is correlated with a decrease/increase in WAVE-2 protein, respectively. We furthermore suggest that LRRK2 and WAVE-2 may bind directly and that LRRK2 phosphorylates WAVE-2 to maintain its stability. Finally, as a proof of concept, we constructed a novel animal model of LRRK2 in flies by limiting LRRK2 over expression to central phagocytes of the Drosophila brain. This causes lifespan deficits and motor dysfunction that can be rescued by down-regulation of SCAR. Collectively, this body of work helped create the first germ-line, genetic model of PD that recapitulates nigral loss and elucidated LRRK2 interactors in the fly. Furthermore, we demonstrate that one of these interactors mediated LRRK2’s modulation of phagocytic activity that may contribute to the pathogenesis of PD.

Mutations in the Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (Lrrk2) gene are associated with familial and sporadic cases of Parkinson’s disease but are also found in inflammatory-related disorders such as Crohn’s disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, tuberculosis and leprosy. There is also evidence that LRRK2 is highly expressed in immune cells, particularly in macrophages, and has been functionally linked to pathways pertinent to immune cell function such as modulating the course of infections, cytokine release, autophagy and phagocytosis. Indeed, G2019S mutation in Lrrk2 is the most common mutation in Parkinson’s disease. Accordingly, we hypothesized that G2019S mutation in Lrrk2 might enhance the activation of the innate immune system. We tested our hypothesis by performing challenge experiments in a mouse model of Listeria monocytogenes, and by measuring the activation of bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDMs) following in vitro infection with the bacterium. We found that Lrrk2G2019S mutant mice controlled L. monocytogenes better than WT mice. The mechanism behind the better control of L. monocytogenes by the G2019S mutation of Lrrk2 was investigated in BMDMs following in vitro infection with L. monocytogenes. Interestingly, we found that Lrrk2G2019S mutation enhances the production of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-10 by infected BMDMs. The impact on TNF-α and IL-1β was specifically due to the G2019S mutation of Lrrk2 since there was no impact on the expression of these cytokines in Lrrk2 knockout macrophages. Western blotting experiments revealed that the G2019S mutation of Lrrk2 enhances MAPK signaling (TAK1, p38 and ERK). Modulation of the expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α and IL-1β by G2019S mutation of Lrrk2 occurred via p38 MAPK activation. The impact on IL-10 expression occurred through increased ERK activation by the G2019S mutation of Lrrk2. We did not observe any impact of G2019S mutation of Lrrk2 on the activation of NF-κB and JNK MAPK pathways. Increased expression of IL-1β by G2019S mutation of Lrrk2 revealed increased inflammasome signaling. Inflammasome signaling in response to L. monocytogenes was mainly mediated by the AIM2- and partly by NLRP3- inflammasome and was dependent on activation of caspase-1. We found that Lrrk2G2019S mutation enhanced the expression of NLRP3 and caspase-1. Finally, we found that the expression of reactive oxygen species (ROS) following infection with L. monocytogenes was augmented by G2019S mutation of Lrrk2, and this can be an important mechanism that promotes the enhanced clearance of the bacterium in vivo. Overall, these results present new insights into the signaling mechanisms through which the G2019S mutation of Lrrk2 augments innate immune response which leads to better control of infection.

La maladie de Parkinson (MP) est une pathologie neurodégénérative fréquente. Différents mécanismes moléculaires ont été mis en cause, dont une dysfonction mitochondriale. Des mutations du gène LRRK2, codant la protéine leucine-rich repeat kinase 2, sont responsables de formes autosomiques dominantes. La substitution la plus fréquente, G2019S, confère à la protéine un gain de fonction. LRRK2 semble réguler l’homéostasie mitochondriale, rôle initialement attribué aux protéines Parkine et PINK1, qui régulent en particulier la mitophagie. Nous avons étudié le rôle de LRRK2 et de son variant LRRK2-G2019S dans la régulation de la mitophagie dépendante de PINK1/Parkine. Nous avons également évalué l’effet de l’activité kinase sur ce processus dans un modèle cellulaire et dans des fibroblastes de patients. Nous avons exploré l’effet de LRRK2 sur la régulation d’interactions protéiques essentielles dans la mitophagie. Enfin, nous avons comparé l’efficacité de la mitophagie dans les formes familiales de la MP liées aux gènes LRRK2 et PARK2. Nous avons montré que LRRK2 et son variant LRRK2 G2019S retardent la mitophagie. Au travers de son activité kinase, LRRK2 compromet des interactions protéiques clefs impliquant Parkine et la GTPase Drp1. Nous avons mis en évidence un défaut de ce processus dans les fibroblastes de patients porteurs de mutations du gène PARK2. Ce défaut est également retrouvé dans les fibroblastes de patients porteurs de la substitution G2019S, dans lesquels il est corrigé par l’inhibition de l’activité kinase de la protéine. Ces résultats mettent en évidence un rôle de LRRK2 et de sa substitution pathogène dans la mitophagie dépendante de la voie PINK1/Parkine. / Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a frequent neurodegenerative disorder. Different molecular mechanisms are suspected, among which mitochondrial dysfunction stands out. Mutations in LRRK2, encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), cause autosomal dominant PD forms. The most frequent G2019S substitution leads to a gain of function. LRRK2 seems to modulate mitochondrial homeostasis, initially associated with Parkin and PINK1 proteins, which regulate in particular mitophagy. Here, we explored the involvement of LRRK2 and its kinase activity in the regulation of PINK1/Parkin-dependent mitophagy, and evaluated the consequence of the G2019S substitution, both in a cell line (COS7) and in primary fibroblasts from PD patients. In particularly, we studied the impact of LRRK2 on the regulation of protein-protein interactions essential for mitophagy initiation. We also compared the efficiency of PINK1/Parkin-dependent mitochondrial clearance in familial PD forms linked to LRRK2 and PARK2. Our results show that LRRK2 and its LRRK2 G2019S variant delay mitophagy. Moreover, these proteins compromised key interactions involving Parkin and the GTPase dynamin related protein 1 (Drp1) on the outer mitochondrial membrane. We confirmed a defect in this process in fibroblasts from patients with PARK2 mutations and found a similar alteration in fibroblasts from patients with the G2019S substitution. Inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity restored mitophagy induction in cells from LRRK2 patients, but not in cells from PARK2 patients. Altogether, these results highlight a role of LRRK2 and its pathogenic substitution in the regulation of PINK1/Parkin-dependent mitophagy.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative movement disorder characterized by the loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. The mechanism by which these DA neurons die is still unclear and under investigation. Although mostly idiopathic, about 10% of PD cases have shown familial inheritance. Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), a large multi-domain protein with unknown physiological and pathological roles, have been linked to PD cases of autosomal dominant inheritance. A PD Drosophilamelanogaster model over expressing the human LRRK2(I2020T) kinase mutant using the GAL4/UAS system has shown a loss of DA neurons and locomotor deficiency. Additionally, ectopic overexpression of human LRRK2 in the eye caused a damaged eye phenotype characterized by roughness of the surface, loss of pigmentation and presence of black lesions (Venderova Ket. al., 2009). The presence of this identifiable eye phenotype has allowed us to perform a suppressor/enhancer screen to identify possible genetic interactors of LRRK2. The LRRK2(I2020T) transgenic flies were crossed with genomic deficiency lines and the eye phenotype screened for either suppression or enhancement. Twenty-two genes, which are implicated in a variety of biological processes, have been identified thus far. Fourteen of these 22 interacting genes were assessed in the DA neurons of the D.melanogaster model. This functional screen is a rapid method to provide us with potential genetic interactions between LRRK2 and other genes, which will in turn, aid in elucidating the functional role of LRRK2 in PD pathology.

Parkinson???s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterised pathologically by the selective death of the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra and the appearance of abnormal inclusions in some surviving neurons. A body of evidence from epidemiological, in vitro and in vivo studies suggest that isoprenoids, a lipid family which includes cholesterol, dolichol and ubiquinone, may play a role in PD, although to date the data has been conflicting with little consensus regarding the type or direction of change in isoprenoids in PD. The current study investigated isoprenoids in PD by quantifying a range of isoprenoids in blood sera, brain homogenates and olfactory mucosa derived from PD patients and controls. Further, isoprenoid synthesis pathways were investigated by comparing the activitites and amount of the rate-limiting enzyme for isoprenoid synthesis, HMG CoA reductase, in olfactory mucosal cultures from individuals with sporadic PD and leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2)-PD with those from healthy individuals. Serum levels of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides and dolichol were unchanged in patients with PD compared with controls. Similarly, total tissue cholesterol was unchanged in degenerating and non-degenerating regions of the PD brain, but tissue dolichol was significantly decreased in the substantia nigra in the PD brain, possibly reflecting a change in the neuron/glia ratio in this brain region. In olfactory mucosa, a significant decrease in cellular cholesterol content was identified in patients with LRRK2-PD compared with patients with sporadic PD or controls. The reduction in cholesterol was similar in two different LRRK2 mutations but was not associated with a change in either the amount or activity of HMG CoA reductase. This study suggests that decreased cholesterol is associated with LRRK2-PD but not with sporadic PD. As cholesterol levels in cells with different LRRK2 mutations were reduced to a similar extent, it is suggested that mutations in this gene result in a loss-of-function of LRRK2 protein. Further it suggests a role for LRRK2 in cholesterol homeostasis independent of HMG-CoA reductase-associated pathways. Recent data has suggested a functional role of LRRK2 in autophagy, a mechanism which may explain the reduction in cholesterol observed in LRRK2-PD.

One of the major hallmarks of Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the deposition of intracellular Lewy body inclusions. α-Synuclein is a small protein that accumulates and aggregates to form Lewy bodies. Recent studies uncovered variation of α-synuclein mRNA 3’ untranslated region (UTR), but the role of this region in regulating the α-synuclein expression is poorly understood. 3’UTR is a target region for RNA binding proteins and microRNAs (miRs) in regulating protein translation from the mRNA transcript. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a key regulator of miR-mediated translational repression and is frequently mutated and causally associated with PD. We hypothesize that LRRK2 regulates α-synuclein expression post-transcriptionally via binding of miR to α-synuclein mRNA’s 3’UTR. We have found that α-synuclein mRNA with short 3’UTR has similar protein expression level to that of long 3’UTR in the absence of LRRK2 in both HEK-293 FT cells and primary hippocampal neurons. However, LRRK2 wild-type and disease mutant G2019S increased α-synuclein protein expression. In particular, an increase of 2-fold was observed for the short 3’UTR transcript, which is significantly greater than the increase for the long isoform. These data suggest differential effects of LRRK2 on α-synuclein depending on the length of 3’UTR. The short 3’UTR of the α-synuclein transcript has a binding site for miR-7; whereas, that of the long isoform has binding sites for miR-7 and miR-153. We discovered that these differential effects of LRRK2 on α-synuclein are dependent on the binding of miR-7 and miR-153 to the 3’UTR of the isoforms. Specifically, miR-7 is a stronger mediator in regulating α-synuclein translation compared to miR-153, leading to an approximately 30% inhibition of α-synuclein protein expression. Our studies have also shown that the effects of LRRK2 on regulating α-synuclein protein expression are dependent on LRRK2 kinase activity. Gain-of-kinase-function mutation, G2019S, leads to a greater increase of α-synuclein protein expression compared to wild-type; whereas, inhibition of LRRK2 kinase function decreases its effect on α-synuclein protein expression. These findings highlight novel mechanisms regulating the expression of α-synuclein involving LRRK2, miRs-7 and -153. These results highlight miRs as potential targets for reducing levels of α-synuclein in PD.