Thesis (M.Sc.). / Written for the Dept. of Microbiology and Immunology. Title from title page of PDF (viewed2009/07/02 ). Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (M.Med.Sc.)--University of Hong Kong, 2003. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 84-92). Also available in print.

<p>B lymphocytes are multifunctional and play important roles in both innate and adaptive immunity. The diverse roles of B cells can be attributed to the various and distinct types of B cells as determined by their origin, developmental stage, antigen specificity, and function.</p><p>Evidence suggests that human innate-like B cells (i.e., marginal zone and/or B1-like B cells) develop during fetal life. However, the characteristics of human fetal B-lineage cells are less understood. Recent studies of fetal and human umbilical cord B cells indicated that CD27, a well-established marker of human memory B cells, may also be expressed on human B1-like B cells. Indeed, CD27+ B cells are present in patients with hyper-IgM 1 (HIGM1) syndrome who are unable to generate GCs or memory B cells. In order to define the origin of naïve CD27+IgD+ human B cells, I studied B-cell development in both fetal and adult tissues.</p><p>In human fetal liver, most CD19+ cells co-express CD10, a marker of human developing B cells. Some CD19+CD10+ B cells express CD27, and these fetal CD27+ cells are present in the pro-B, pre-B, and immature/transitional B-cell compartments. Lower frequencies of phenotypically identical cells are also identified in adult bone marrow. CD27+ pro-B, pre-B, and immature/transitional B cells express recombination activating gene-1, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase, and Vpre-B mRNA comparable to their CD27− counterparts. CD27+ and CD27− developing B cells show similar immunoglobulin heavy chain gene usage with low levels of mutations, suggesting that CD27+ developing B cells are distinct from mutated memory B cells. Despite these similarities, CD27+ developing B cells differ from CD27− developing B cells by their increased expression of LIN28B, a transcription factor associated with the fetal lymphoid lineages of mice. Furthermore, CD27+ pro-B cells efficiently generate IgM+IgD+ immature/transitional B cells in vitro. Our observations suggest that CD27 expression during B-cell development identifies a physiologic state or lineage for human B-cell development distinct from the memory B-cell compartment.</p><p>Regarding B-cell repertoire, due to the random recombination of immunoglobulin V, D, and J gene segments during B-cell development, B cells are highly diversified in their antigen specificity. Through their specific B-cell antigen receptors (BCRs), B cells recognize foreign (and self-) antigens, and present these antigens to cognate T cells to elicit/establish humoral responses, such as germinal centers, immunological memory, and long-lasting circulating antibodies. Some bacteria and viruses escape the host’s immune system by mimicking host antigens, as B cells that recognize shared epitopes on self- and foreign antigens may provide protection against such pathogens; however, these B cells are normally eliminated by tolerance mechanisms during development. The extent of tolerization manifest among human B cells that recognize both self- and foreign antigens is unknown. Here, I and my colleagues use an efficient single B-cell culture method and multiplexed antigen-binding assays to determine the specificity of about 2,300 clonal IgG antibodies produced by the progeny of single transitional and mature B cells. We show that in healthy individuals, half of the self-reactive B cells crossreact with foreign antigen, and that the frequencies of crossreactive B cells decrease by half between the transitional and mature B-cell stages, indicating that a substantial fraction of foreign specificities is lost by the second tolerance mechanisms. In SLE patients, who show defective peripheral tolerance, frequencies of crossreactive B cells are unchanged between the B-cell stages. The crossreactive, mature B cells in SLE patients show distinct reactivity to foreign antigens. We propose that activating forbidden B cells may be a good strategy for protection against host-mimicking pathogens if we can control tolerance. </p><p>Activated B cells can present antigen to T cells, as well as differentiate into memory B cells and plasma cells. Indeed, activated B cells express high levels of MHCII and are considered to be professional antigen presenting cells (APC), along with dendritic cells and macrophages. APC can be used to discover the epitopes targeted in T-cell responses; T cells are co-cultured with autologous APC in the presence of antigens and T-cell responses are evaluated. With numerous epitope candidates, mapping T-cell epitopes requires large numbers of APC; the availability of APC in blood is a limiting component and leukapheresis is often required. Since B cells can be expanded in vitro more easily than other APC, they represent a solution for the challenge of isolating adequate numbers of APC from blood in order to determine T-cell antigen specificity. I modified our single B-cell culture to support efficient activation and proliferation of both naïve and memory human B cells for the purpose of generating large numbers of autologous APC. Briefly, naïve or memory B cells recovered from blood are cultured with recombinant human IL-2, IL-4, IL-21, and BAFF on CD154+ feeder cells; this culture supports extensive B-cell proliferation, with approximately 103 fold increases following 8 days in culture, and 106 fold increases when cultures are split and cultured for 8 more days. The capacity for continued proliferation is stable for at least another week. In culture, a significant fraction of naïve B cells undergo isotype switching and terminally differentiate into plasmacytes. Culture-derived (CD) B cells are readily cryopreserved, and when recovered, retain their ability to proliferate and differentiate. Significantly, proliferating CD B cells express high levels of MHCII, CD80, and CD86. I have examined the APC function of CD B cells and found that they present both allo- and microbial antigens to autologous T cells with comparable efficiency to PBMC. Moreover, I am able to activate and expand antigen-specific memory B cells; these cultured cells are highly effective in presenting antigen to T cells. This culture method provides a platform for studying the BCR and TCR repertoires within a single individual.</p> / Dissertation

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) are major effector cells in the adaptive immune response against intracellular pathogens and cancers, killing targets with high precision. Precision is achieved through the specificity of the clonally expressed T cell receptor (TCR). TCRs recognise a specific peptide chain loaded into a major-histocompatability complex, triggering signalling, inducing the CTL to attach and kill target cells. Key stages in this attack are the initial conjugation followed by polarisation and docking of the centrosome to the junction of the two cells, the immune synapse (IS). This focuses secretion of the cytolytic components, perforin and granzyme, from modified lysosomes to kill the target cell. My PhD has utilised amino acid substitutions in the target peptide to alter its signal strength and shown this alters the subsequent killing efficiency of a target population. I developed new imaging and analysis techniques to investigate the effect of TCR signal strength at each step of the killing process. I show the first step, conjugation, is reduced for a percentage of cells with dwell times decreasing as TCR signal strength decreased. The next key step of centrosome polarisation and docking at the IS was also impaired for an increasing proportion of cells as TCR signalling reduced. Impaired centrosome docking reduced efficient granule recruitment to the IS, necessary for target killing. Centrosome docking was linked with the TCR-induced intracellular calcium flux, the duration of which increases with the strength of TCR signalling. This demonstrates how the process of CTL killing can be fine-tuned by the quality of antigen.

Streptococcus uberis is an important cause of intramammary infection in dairy cattle. Strains of S. uberis appear to differ in their ability to cause disease based on previous epidemiological studies. We explored the pathogenicity of 2 strains of S. uberis, where one strain represented a putatively host-adapted type based on its ability to cause persistent infection and to spread from cow to cow in a lactating herd. This type was part of a clonal complex that is commonly associated with bovine mastitis. The other strain, which was isolated from a transient infection in a single animal in the same herd and did not belong to any known clonal complex, was selected as putatively non-adapted type. Cows (6 per strain) were experimentally challenged in a single hind quarter and the adjacent hind quarter was used as mock challenged control quarter. Both strains showed an equal ability grow in milk of challenge animals in vitro. All cows that were challenged with the putatively host-adapted strain developed clinical signs of mastitis, including fever and milk yield depression as well as elevated somatic cell count due to influx of polymorphonuclear leucocytes and lymphocytes. The cytokine response followed a specific order, with an increase in IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-8 levels at the time of first SCC elevation, followed by an increase in IL-10, IL-12p40 and TNF-α levels approximately 6 h later. In 4 of 6 animals, IL-17A was detected in milk between 57 and 168 h post challenge. The increase in IL-17A levels coincided with inversion of the pre-challenge CD4+:CD8+ T lymphocyte ratio, and was observed from 96 h post challenge. This was followed by normalisation of the CD4+:CD8+ ratio due to continued increase of the CD8+ concentration up to 312 h post challenge. Spontaneous resolution of infection was observed in 5 animals and coincided with a measurable IL-17A response in 4 animals, suggesting that IL-17 may be involved in the resolution of intramammary infection. To explore the mechanism of action of IL-17A we stimulated bovine PMN and bovine blood derived macrophages with recombinant IL-17A in vitro. IL-17A enhanced the killing ability of phagocyte toward the challenge strain. With the exception of minor elevation of IL-8 levels, no clinical, cytological or immunological response was detected in quarters challenged with the non-adapted strain. The observed strain specific pathogenicity was consistent across animals, implying that it is determined by pathogen factors rather than host factors. We further studied in vitro possible mechanisms involved in the differences observed between the two strains such as ability to adhere to the mammary epithelial cells, ability to resist to killing by phagocytes and ability to form biofilm. The adapted strain FSL Z1-048 showed an increased ability to adhere to the epithelial cells and an increase ability to resist to killing of monocyte derived macrophages. These mechanisms thus could potentially explain the in vivo observations.

The proteoglycan CD44 is a widely expressed cell surface receptor for the extracellular matrix glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan, and is involved in processes ranging from metastasis to wound healing. In the immune system, leukocyte activation induces hyaluronan binding through changes in CD44 post-translational modification, but these changes have not been well characterized. Here I identify chondroitin sulfate addition to CD44 as a negative regulator of hyaluronan binding. Chondroitin sulfate addition was analyzed by sulfate incorporation and Western blotting and determined to occur at serine 180 in human CD44 using site-directed mutagenesis. Mutation of serine 180 increased hyaluronan binding by both a CD44-immunoglobulin fusion protein expressed in HEK293 cells, and full-length CD44 expressed in murine L fibroblast cells. In bone marrow-derived macrophages, hyaluronan binding induced by the inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α and interferon-γ corresponded with reduced chondroitin sulfate addition to CD44. Retroviral infection of CD44⁻/⁻ macrophages with mouse CD44 containing a mutation at serine 183, equivalent to serine 180 in human CD44, resulted in hyaluronan binding that was constitutively high and no longer enhanced by stimulation. These results demonstrate that hyaluronan binding by CD44 is regulated by chondroitin sulfate addition in macrophages. A functional consequence of altered chondroitin sulfate addition and increased hyaluronan binding was observed in Jurkat T cells, which became more susceptible to activation-induced cell death when transfected with mutant CD44. The extent of cell death was dependent upon both the hyaluronan binding ability of CD44 and the size of hyaluronan itself, with high molecular mass hyaluronan having a greater effect than intermediate or low molecular mass hyaluronan. The addition of hyaluronan to pre-activated Jurkat T cells induced rapid cell death independently of Fas and caspase activation, identifying a unique Fas-independent mechanism for inducing cell death in activated cells. Results were comparable in splenic T cells, where high hyaluronan binding correlated with increased phosphatidylserine exposure, and hyaluronan-dependent cell death occurred in a population of restimulated cells in the absence of Fas-dependent cell death. Together these results reveal a novel mechanism for regulating hyaluronan binding and demonstrate that altered chondroitin sulfate addition can affect CD44 function. / Science, Faculty of / Microbiology and Immunology, Department of / Graduate

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第22334号 / 医博第4575号 / 新制||医||1041(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 河本 宏, 教授 濵﨑 洋子, 教授 羽賀 博典 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Le facteur de transcription NF-KB joue un rôle essentiel dans le développement, l’homéostasie, la survie du système immunitaire, mais également dans la propagation de certains lymphomes. L’activation optimale de NF-ΚB en réponse à l’engagement de nombreux immunorécepteurs repose sur la mise en place de larges signalosomes dans lesquels des adaptateurs spécifiques sont recrutés et poly-Ubiquitinylés de façon non-Dégradative. En réponse à des cytokines pro-Inflammatoires ou à l’activation des récepteurs antigéniques, ces adaptateurs ubiquitinylés s’accumulent sur la face cytoplasmique du réticulum endoplasmique (RE) via la protéine du RE metadherine (MTDH) qui assure la propagation du signal NF-KB. Toutefois, la nature des E3 ligases en charge de relayer NF-KB au niveau des organites intracellulaires reste méconnue. C’est pourquoi j’ai réalisé le crible par bioluminescence d’une librairie de siRNA dirigée contre les 46 E3 ubiquitine ligases humaines pourvues d’un domaine transmembranaire qui les ancrent au niveau de différents compartiments cellulaires afin d’étudier leur impact sur l’activation de NF-KB en réponse à une stimulation antigénique dans un modèle de lymphocytes T immortalisés Jurkat. Nous avons identifié la protéine du RE TRIM13 comme un régulateur positif de la signalisation NF-ΚB. Nos données suggèrent un modèle dans lequel TRIM13 régule l’activation de NF-KB en modulant indépendamment l’activation de deux membres clés de la famille NF-KB au cours de l’activation lymphocytaire, RelA (p65) et c-Rel.Lors de cette thèse, j’ai également participé au crible d’une librairie de siRNA ciblant les 96 déubiquitinases (DUBs) codées par le génome humain afin d’identifier celles en charge de ramener les cellules vers leur état basal. Ceci a permis la caractérisation de la protéase spécifique de l’ubiquitine USP34 (Ubiquitin specific protease 34). La réduction des niveaux endogènes de USP34 potentialise l’activation de NF-KB en réponse à l’engagement du récepteur antigénique T ou du récepteur au TNFa et la liaison de NF-KB à l’ADN est accrue. Collectivement, ces résultats suggèrent que USP34 est un nouvel acteur impliqué dans la régulation négative de NF-KB.Ces résultats illustrent l’importance des processus d’ubiquitination réversibles dans la régulation de la signalisation NF-ΚB et introduisent les cribles génétiques comme un outil efficace pour l’identification de régulateurs de processus biologiques divers. / The transcription factor NF-KappaB plays a critical role in the development, homeostasis, the survival of the immune system, but also in the propagation of certain lymphomas. The optimal activation of NF-KappaB in response to the engagement of many immunoreceptors rely on the implementation of large signalosomes where specific adaptors are recruited and poly-Ubiquitinylated in a non-Degradative manner. In response to proinflammatory cytokines or activation of antigen receptors, these Ubiquitinylated adaptors accumulate on the cytoplasmic leaflet of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) via the ER protein metadherin (MTDH) providing NF-KappaB signal propagation . However, the nature of the E3 ligases responsible for relaying NF-KappaB in intracellular organelles remains unknown. This is why I made the screen ingby bioluminescence of a library of siRNAs targeting the 46 human ubiquitin E3 ligases provided with a transmembrane domain that anchor them at different cellular compartments to study their impact on the NF-KappaB activation in response to antigenic stimulation in immortalized T lymphocytes Jurkat. We identified the ER-Protein TRIM13 as a positive regulator of NF-KappaB signaling. Our data suggest a model in which TRIM13 regulates the activation of NF-KappaB activation by modulating independently two key members of the NF-KappaB family during lymphocyte activation, RelA (p65) and c-Rel. In this thesis, I also participated in the screening of a library of siRNAs targeting the 98 deubiquitinases (DUBs) encoded by the human genome to identify those in charge of the reset of the system to basal state. This screen allowed the characterization of the ubiquitin-Specific protease USP34 (ubiquitin specific protease 34). The reduction of endogenous levels of USP34 potentiates the activation of NF-KappaB in response to engagement of the antigen receptor or T receptor antagonists and enhances NF-KappaB DNA binding. Collectively, these results suggest that USP34 is a new player involved in the negative regulation of NF-KappaB. These results illustrate the importance of reversible ubiquitination process in the regulation of the NF-KappaB signaling and introduce genetic screens as an effective tool to identify regulators of diverse biological processes.

(ENG) This thesis summarizes the results of a project dedicated to adaptive immune system of patients with partial DiGeorge syndrome caused by deletion of 22q11.2. The introduction sets the DiGeorge syndrome into a broader context of international pathophysio- clinical classification of primary immunodeficiencies and goes into detail describing its history, causes, clinical phenotype, therapeutic options and changes of the immune system. The attached manuscripts illustrate the premature aging of the T cell population, but also impaired development of B cells with low class-switched memory and high naïve subpopulations, along with high serum levels of BAFF, a B cell survival factor. The surprising lack of T independent marginal zone- like (MZ-like) B cells is reflected in decreased natural anti-α-Gal antibodies. The faulty B cell maturation and imperfect germinal center response is not caused by a deficit of follicular helper T cells, which are in fact increased in DiGeorge syndrome patients, and in most cases doesn't lead to hypogammaglobulinaemia. Despite the high incidence of autoimmune disease, in particular thyroiditis and thrombocytopenia, and a trend towards hypergammaglobulinaemia in adolescence and adulthood, we saw normal proportion of regulatory T cells (Tregs) and normal expression of...

Background: IL-4 and IL-13 are related cytokines with similar functional properties. Differential regulation of IL-4 and IL-13 has not been described. Objective: We have examined the effects of IFN-α on antigen-driven proliferation, IL-4 generation, and IL-13 generation from human PBMCs and T-cell clones. Methods: Proliferation was assessed by 3H-thymidine incorporation. Cytokine generation was assessed by reverse transcription PCR and ELISA. Messenger RNA stability was assessed in the presence of actinomycin D. Results: IFN-α induced a concentration-dependent inhibition of antigen-driven proliferation of TH1 and TH2 clones (median effective concentration, 150 to 200 U/mL); the sensitivity of TH1 and TH2 clones to IFN-α was not significantly different (P = .6). IFN-α induced an analogous concentration-dependent inhibition of antigen-driven IL-13 generation from TH1 and TH2 clones (median effective concentration, 100 U/mL); this effect was evident by 12 hours of culture and persisted beyond 48 hours. However, IL-4 generation from TH2 clones was insensitive to IFN-α at all concentrations and times tested (1 to 10,000 U/mL). A similar inhibitory effect of IFN-α on mitogen-driven proliferation and IL-13 generation from PBMCs was demonstrated; once again, IL-4 generation from PBMCs was insensitive to IFN-α. IL-13 mRNA stability was unaffected by IFN-α, suggesting transcriptional regulation. Conclusion: IFN-α differentially regulates antigen-stimulated IL-4 and IL-13 generation.