Many pathways dysregulated in prostate cancer are also involved in epithelial differentiation. To better understand prostate tumor initiation, we sought to investigate specific genes and mechanisms required for normal basal to luminal cell differentiation. Utilizing human prostate basal epithelial cells and an in vitro differentiation model, we tested the hypothesis that regulation of NOTCH3 by the p38 MAPK family (hereafter p38-MAPK), via MYC, is required for luminal differentiation. Inhibition (SB202190 and BIRB796) or knockdown of p38a (also known as MAPK14) and/or p38d (also known as MAPK13) prevented proper differentiation. Additionally, treatment with a gamma-secretase inhibitor (RO4929097) or knockdown of NOTCH1 and/or NOTCH3 greatly impaired differentiation and caused luminal cell death. Constitutive p38-MAPK activation through MKK6(CA) increased NOTCH3 (but not NOTCH1) mRNA and protein levels, which was diminished upon MYC inhibition (10058-F4 and JQ1) or knockdown. Furthermore, we validated two NOTCH3 enhancer elements through a combination of enhancer (e) RNA detection (BruUV-seq) and luciferase reporter assays. Finally, we found that the NOTCH3 mRNA half-life increased during differentiation or upon acute p38-MAPK activation. These results reveal a new connection between p38-MAPK, MYC and NOTCH signaling, demonstrate two mechanisms of NOTCH3 regulation and provide evidence for NOTCH3 involvement in prostate luminal cell differentiation.

The MAPK pathway plays a crucial role in regulating cellular response to external stimuli. Binding of growth factors and other mitogenic signals to cell surface receptors initiates a phosphorylation-dependent relay of protein activation, resulting in altered transcription, ultimately regulating cell proliferation and differentiation. Signalling through this pathway is regulated by the coordinated function of specific protein kinases and protein phosphatases. As perturbation of this signalling system is often associated with diseases such as cancer, modelling is a useful means to help understand the outcomes that may result following changes in component levels or activity. The determination of absolute quantification data, in copies per cell, for proteins of the MAPK pathway will allow the expansion of and improved accuracy within predictive models. The strategy used within this thesis is based on the established technique of stable isotope dilution, generating isotopically labelled peptides using the QconCAT methodology. Recombinant DNA techniques were used to generate artificial concatamers of large numbers of tryptic peptides as quantification standards. A QconCAT, LM1, of 49 KDa (29 tryptic peptides), corresponding to the scaffold proteins was designed and built to encode two peptides per protein. A second QconCAT, LM2, of 58 KDa (34 tryptic peptides), encoded peptides from the dual-specificity phosphatases (DUSPs) and substrates. Quantification was performed using ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. A selected reaction monitoring (SRM) approach was employed where the most intense y-ions per peptide were selected either from experimental data or predictions in silico. Using the ratio of the signal for the light:heavy isotopologues, the amount of light isotopologue can be inferred, allowing copies per cell quantifications to be established. Native peptides were present below the lower limit of quantification, and therefore the upper bounds of copies per cell were obtained for the three cell lines; colon cancer cells HCT 116 (K-Ras mutant) and HT-29 (B-Raf mutant) and a control cell line of HEK-293. Finally, mathematical modelling was undertaken to explore the mass-action kinetics of a three component scaffold signalling molecule. It was found that the optimal scaffold concentration is between the lowest and second lowest concentration of signalling protein.

The prevalence of stress and anxiety disorders in modern society is increasing, but the development of new treatments decreasing due to high research costs and low success rates in clinical trials. The latest type of compounds introduced to treat anxiety and depression was the specific serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), which was introduced in 1987. Since then, no new class of compounds have been introduced, suggesting that the need to find alternative targets in treating mental disorders is needed. In this thesis I have used the zebrafish as a model organism to study the modulation of behaviours through intracellular signalling pathways, known to be involved in learning, memory and anxiety. First, using the pro-convulsant compound, pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), an automated tracking system was established to quantify and analyse swimming behaviour in larvae zebrafish. Pentylenetetrazole induces seizures in zebrafish at high concentrations, however this thesis identifies that the combination of a low level of PTZ and subjecting the fish to alternating cycles of light and dark induced a reversed response to light and dark. A group of compounds with known anti-seizure effects were subsequently screened, which found that a combinational treatment with diazepam and two types of neurosteroids reversed the PTZ-induced light dark response. Secondly, using the same automated analysis setup, the effect of cAMP modulators was studied on behaviour in zebrafish larvae. Our lab has previously established that Rolipram, a PDE4 inhibitor, causes anxiety thigmotaxis in zebrafish larvae. In this thesis we treated zebrafish larvae with Rolipram and other compounds modulating cAMP, which greatly increased the swimming activity, which was reversed by subsequently treating with PD0325901. To test if the pharmacological modulation of cAMP-levels through the inhibition of other PDEs would lead to increased locomotor activity, a small library of PDE inhibitors was screened, and 4 compounds were identified that caused an increase in locomotion – three of these compounds were PDE4-inhibitors. Finally, by using two behavioural assays, I found that in adult fish Rolipram cause anxiety-like phenotypes, which is also reversible by MAPK-inhibition.

[Truncated abstract] Androgens inhibit the growth of human breast tumours and have been successfully used to treat breast cancer in women. Expression of the androgen receptor (AR), which mediates androgen action, is upregulated in breast cancer cells and the AR is the most frequently expressed steroid hormone receptor in breast tumours. AR levels and activity are modulated by the activity of other signalling pathways, however interactions between the AR and signalling pathways and the consequent alterations to the androgen responsiveness of breast cancer cells are largely uncharacterised. The extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK1/2) pathway is hyperactivated in ~30% of breast tumours and these tumours are often associated with low oestrogen receptor-a (ERa) levels, reduced responsiveness to antioestrogen therapies and an overall poorer prognosis. In this thesis, the MCF-7 human breast cancer cell line which expresses ERa, progesterone receptor (PR) and the AR, was used to investigate ERK1/2-mediated regulation of the AR and the androgen responsiveness of cells. Inhibition of ERK1/2 signalling was achieved by treatment of cells with U0126, an inhibitor of MEK1/2, the upstream activator of ERK1/2. Hyperactivation of ERK1/2 signalling was achieved by stably transfecting cells with a plasmid encoding a constitutively active form of the MEK1 protein (¿MEK1), resulting in the isolation of two clonal cell populations stably expressing ¿MEK1, ¿C3 and ¿6B, and a monoclonal cell line stably expressing the empty vector, MT3-1. Steady state AR mRNA levels, quantitated using real-time RT-PCR, were increased following U0126 treatment of MCF-7, MT3-1 and ¿6B cells. Conversely, treatment of cells with 10-8M 5a-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) for up to 72 hours decreased AR mRNA levels, indicating that ERK1/2 hyperactivation did not alter the androgenresponsiveness of AR mRNA. '...' Overall levels of AR phosphorylation were enhanced in ¿6B cells in the absence and presence of ligand, indicating that ERK1/2 hyperactivation either directly or indirectly induced receptor phosphorylation. The AR is localised in the cytoplasm in the absence of ligand and was more rapidly translocated to the nucleus in the presence of DHT in ¿C3 cells, an effect that was abrogated in the presence of U0126, thereby indicating an ERK1/2-specific mechanism. AR transcriptional activity, measured using androgen responsive reporter plasmids was not significantly altered in ¿6B cells in either the absence or presence of DHT, although the trend towards enhanced AR activity may be confirmed in future studies using optimised reporter assays. Consistent with the cell cycle regulatory functions of ERK1/2 signalling, proliferation of ¿C3 cells and ¿6B cells was increased in comparison to that of MT3-1 and MCF-7 cells. Treatment of ¿C3 cells and MCF-7 cells with 10-10 – 10-8M DHT produced similar inhibition of proliferation (~40%) during 8 days of culture, with no evidence of cytotoxicity. The results obtained in this thesis demonstrate that while ERK1/2 signalling regulates AR phosphorylation, processing and intracellular localisation, ERK1/2 hyperactivation in breast cancer cells does not inhibit the anti-proliferative effects of androgens. These findings support the development of tissue-specific androgenic treatments for breast tumours including poor prognosis tumours exhibiting ERK1/2 hyperactivation.

Medulloblastoma cells do not contain detectable amounts of the bZIP protein Zhangfei. However, previous work has shown that expression of this protein in cells of the ONS-76 line, derived from a human medulloblastoma, causes the cells to stop growing and develop processes that resemble neuritis (a characteristic of differentiated neurons). Zhangfei-expressing cells eventually die. My objective was to determine the molecular mechanisms by which Zhangfei influences ONS-76 cells. My strategy was to infect ONS-76 cells with adenovirus vectors expressing either Zhangfei or the control E. coli protein â-galactosidase (LacZ) and then to compare the following parameters in Zhangfei and LacZ-expressing cells: a) markers of apoptosis, autophagy and macropinocytosis (the three main pathways of cell death); b) transcripts for genes involved in neurogenesis and apoptosis; c) phosphorylation of peptide targets of selected cellular protein kinases; and d) active transcription factors. Zhangfei-expressing cells appeared to succumb to apoptosis as determined by the expression of phosphatidylserine on the cell surface and intensity of nuclear staining with the DNA dye Hoechst. Increased staining for autophagic vesicles and upregulated expression of autophagy response genes in these cells indicated that they were undergoing autophagy, possibly associated with apoptosis. My analysis of steady-state transcripts for genes involved in apoptosis and neurogenesis and functional protein kinases in Zhangfei-expressing cells indicated that the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway was active in these cells. In addition, I found that the transcription factor Brn3a as well as factors implicated in differentiation were also active. These observations led me to hypothesize that Zhangfei enhances the expression of Brn3a, a known inducer of TrkA, the high-affinity receptor for nerve growth factor (NGF). TrkA then binds in an autocrine manner to NGF, triggering the MAPK pathway and leading to differentiation of ONS-76 cells into neuron and glia-like cells, eventually bringing about cell death by apoptosis and autophagy. I tested this hypothesis by showing that Zhangfei could enhance transcription from the isolated Brn3a promoter, that ONS-76 cells produce NGF as detected in a bioassay, and that antibodies against NGF and inhibitors of TrkA and selected components of the MAPK pathway could partially restore the growth of Zhangfei-expressing ONS-76 cells. My work supports previous work highlighting the importance of NGF-TrkA signaling in the outcome of medulloblastomas and shows how Zhangfei is able to trigger this pathway.

Medulloblastoma cells do not contain detectable amounts of the bZIP protein Zhangfei. However, previous work has shown that expression of this protein in cells of the ONS-76 line, derived from a human medulloblastoma, causes the cells to stop growing and develop processes that resemble neuritis (a characteristic of differentiated neurons). Zhangfei-expressing cells eventually die. My objective was to determine the molecular mechanisms by which Zhangfei influences ONS-76 cells. My strategy was to infect ONS-76 cells with adenovirus vectors expressing either Zhangfei or the control E. coli protein â-galactosidase (LacZ) and then to compare the following parameters in Zhangfei and LacZ-expressing cells: a) markers of apoptosis, autophagy and macropinocytosis (the three main pathways of cell death); b) transcripts for genes involved in neurogenesis and apoptosis; c) phosphorylation of peptide targets of selected cellular protein kinases; and d) active transcription factors. Zhangfei-expressing cells appeared to succumb to apoptosis as determined by the expression of phosphatidylserine on the cell surface and intensity of nuclear staining with the DNA dye Hoechst. Increased staining for autophagic vesicles and upregulated expression of autophagy response genes in these cells indicated that they were undergoing autophagy, possibly associated with apoptosis. My analysis of steady-state transcripts for genes involved in apoptosis and neurogenesis and functional protein kinases in Zhangfei-expressing cells indicated that the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway was active in these cells. In addition, I found that the transcription factor Brn3a as well as factors implicated in differentiation were also active. These observations led me to hypothesize that Zhangfei enhances the expression of Brn3a, a known inducer of TrkA, the high-affinity receptor for nerve growth factor (NGF). TrkA then binds in an autocrine manner to NGF, triggering the MAPK pathway and leading to differentiation of ONS-76 cells into neuron and glia-like cells, eventually bringing about cell death by apoptosis and autophagy. I tested this hypothesis by showing that Zhangfei could enhance transcription from the isolated Brn3a promoter, that ONS-76 cells produce NGF as detected in a bioassay, and that antibodies against NGF and inhibitors of TrkA and selected components of the MAPK pathway could partially restore the growth of Zhangfei-expressing ONS-76 cells. My work supports previous work highlighting the importance of NGF-TrkA signaling in the outcome of medulloblastomas and shows how Zhangfei is able to trigger this pathway.

Abstract Neutrophils are the major cellular component of acute inflammatory response. The mechanism by which fMLP or PAF activates neutrophils is not fully elucidated. Stimulation of MAPKs and activation of NF-kappa B in neutrophils regulate various cell functions, including superoxide production. Neutrophils isolated from blood taken from healthy donors, were incubated with specific inhibitors, GF109203X (PKC inhibitor), calphostin C (PKC-gamma isoform inhibitor), wortmannin (PI3K inhibitor), U73122 (PLC inhibitor), aristolochic acid (PLA2 inhibitor), SKF96365 (SOC channel inhibitor), EGTA (extracellular calcium chelator), SB203580 (p38 MAPK inhibitor), and PD98059 (MEK inhibitor), followed by fMLP or PAF treatment. MAPK activation by fMLP or PAF is based on immunoblot analysis. NF-kappa B activation is detected by EMSA, and superoxide production is measured by flow cytometry. The data indicate that neutrophil MAPK signaling pathways mediated by fMLP and PAF are different. PAF-induced ERK MAPK phosphorylation was involved PI3K, PKC, PLA2, PLC, and extracellular calcium, wheres fMLP-induced phosphorylation doesn¡¦t involve PKC

The present study explored the effect of three anti-tumor drugs (cisplatin, fluorouracil, and temozolomide) on viability and cytosolic free Ca2+ concentrations ([Ca2+]i) in OC2 human oral cancer cells. The effect of cisplatin related mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) phosphorylation was also examined. Cisplatin at concentration of 25-150 £gM decreased viability in a concentration-dependent manner, and so did fluorouracil (50-1000 £gM) and temozolomide (50-600 £gM). The three anti-tumor drugs all failed to induce a [Ca2+]i increase; thus it seemed that these drugs induced cell death via Ca2+-independent pathways. Immunoblotting showed that OC2 cells have background phospho-ERK, phospho-JNK and phospho-p38 MAPKs. It was found that cisplatin influenced the phosphorylation of ERK, JNK and p38 MAPKs at different time points.

Membrane type-1 matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP) is a metalloproteinase which becomes upregulated in prostate cancer and has been implicated in processes of prostate cancer metastasis. Here, we show that MT1-MMP is minimally expressed in nonmalignant primary prostate cells, moderately expressed in DU-145 cells, and highly expressed in invasive PC-3 and PC-3N cells. Using MT1-MMP promoter reporters and mobility shift assays, we show that Sp1 regulates MT1-MMP expression in DU-145, PC-3, and PC-3N cells and in PC3-N cells using chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis and silencing RNA. Investigation of signaling pathways in these cells showed that DU-145 cells express constitutively phosphorylated extracellular stress-regulated kinase (ERK), whereas PC-3 and PC-3N cells express constitutively phosphorylated AKT/PKB and c-Jun NH2 terminal kinase (JNK). We show that MT1-MMP and Sp1 levels are decreased in PC-3 and PC-3N cells when PI-3K and JNK are inhibited, and that MT1-MMP levels are decreased in DU-145 cells when MEK is inhibited. Transient transfection of PC-3 and PC-3N cells with a dominant-negative JNK or p85, and DU-145 cells with a dominant negative ERK, reduced MT1-MMP promoter activity. We also identified the insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1R) as an upstream regulatory component of MT1-MMP in PC-3N and LNCaP cells, which express high and low levels of the enzyme, respectively. Treatment of PC-3N cells with an IGF-1R specific inhibitor decreased MT1-MMP promoter activity, RNA and protein levels. Additionally, treatment of LNCaP cells with a synthetic androgen to increase IGF-1R levels and subsequent treatment with IGF-I increased MT1-MMP promoter activity, RNA and protein levels. Analysis of MT1-MMP and IGF-1R expression in human prostate cancer tissues demonstrated that MT1-MMP expression was high in the apical cytoplasmic regions of PIN and prostate cancer and less intense in the basalateral cytoplasmic membrane regions of benign glands. IGF-1R was expressed in normal glands and highly expressed in prostate cancer. In conclusion, we have identified several novel mechanisms regulating MT1-MMP expression in prostate cancer cell lines as well as differential localization of the enzyme in human prostate cancer tissues. These results provide insight into the complex mechanisms of prostate cancer metastasis and may be useful for developing future diagnostic procedures or therapies.

No description available.