The design and construction of roads with longer service lives is a priority of civil engineers. The selection of appropriate highway materials with respect to climatic and loading conditions may significantly increase the lifespan of pavements. One material receiving interest in the area of improved roadway performance is polymer-modified binder. The complex behavior of polymer-modified binders, particularly over time, is not yet well-understood by engineers. Therefore, an experimental study was performed to determine the effects of four years of storage at room temperatures (23°C) on the dynamic mechanical properties of polymer-modified binders at intermediate and high temperatures. A typical paving grade (AC-20) and three elastomeric modifiers, each at three concentrations were used. Initial tests were performed in 1995 to evaluate the effects of short-term aging as simulated by the Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (RTFOT) procedure. This study encompasses a second phase of testing occurring after the modified binders were stored at ambient room temperature (23°C) for four years. The study found that significant changes affecting the dynamic response of binders occur during long term storage at a temperature of 23°C. These changes are dependent on the type and concentration of modifier and may be beneficial. Additionally, four mathematical models describing the dynamic response of binders were evaluated and found to be variable in their ability to accurately predict response of modified binders. Most of these models are not well suited for prediction of the response of stored binders. / Master of Science

Syftet med rapporten är att redovisa en studie där val av utskrivningsmetod samt passande material inom additiv tillverkning ska motiveras, för att tillverka kalibreringsformar till Bucher Emhart glass glasmaskiner. Målet med studien är att tillverka kalibreringsformarna som väger mindre än stålformarna som används idag i glasmaskinerna, detta för att minska arbetsbelastningen på personalen. Stålformarna väger ca 9kg i dagsläget. För att utesluta material och utskriftmetoder användes i första steget kravspecifikationen, och sedan användes pughs matris för att väga de material och utskrivningsmetoder som klarar kraven som ställs. För att validera materialen gjordes även en FEM analys samt en analytisk beräkning på spänningarna. Utifrån Pughs matrisen kunde det konstateras att med den data som givits att en FDM skrivare med ASA som material är mest lämpat för detta projekt. Med denna 3D-skrivare och tillhörande material fick en formhalva en vikt på ca 700g, vilket minskar avsevärt vikten som måste lyftas och således minskar arbetsbelastningen hos arbetarna.

Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) receives an increasing amount of attention because it exhibits the strongest piezoelectric response of any commercially available polymer. These piezoelectric properties have proved useful as actuators and sensors. Current manufacturing processes limit PVDF to thin films and restricting their uses largely to sensors. Further applications utilizing the changes in mechanical properties of piezoelectric polymers are being realized. Evaluating to what extent the mechanical properties will change with applied electric field and finding new ways to manufacture PVDF will lead to new applications of piezoelectric polymers. In-situ mechanical testing of biased piezoelectric PVDF films successfully measured changes in loss and storage modulus. In-situ creep testing measured an increase in stiffness while in-situ dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) measured and overall decrease in loss and storage modulus. Differences in results between the two experiments are attributed to orientation of the polymer and piezoelectric forces acting on the equipment. DMA results are accepted as being the most accurate and measured changes of over 20% in elastic modulus. Results were believed to be greatly influence by attached electrodes and actuation forces. Cryogenic mechanical milling successfully converted a phase PVDF powder to b phase as measured with wide-angle x-ray diffraction. This is the first recorded instance of b phase powders forming from the a phase through ball milling. These b phase powders maintained their crystal structure during compression molding at 70°C. / Master of Science

No / Although several research studies have been conducted on simply supported concrete elements reinforced with fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) bars, there is little reported work on the behaviour of continuous elements. This paper reports the testing of four continuously supported concrete slabs reinforced with carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) bars. Different arrangements of CFRP reinforcement at mid-span and over the middle support were considered. Two simply supported concrete slabs reinforced with under and over CFRP reinforcement and a continuous concrete slab reinforced with steel bars were also tested for comparison purposes. All continuous CFRP reinforced concrete slabs exhibited a combined shear–flexure failure mode. It was also shown that increasing the bottom mid-span CFRP reinforcement of continuous slabs is more effective than the top over middle support CFRP reinforcement in improving the load capacity and reducing mid-span deflections. The ACI 440.1R–06 formulas overestimated the experimental moment at failure but better predicted the load capacity of continuous CFRP reinforced concrete slabs tested. The ACI 440.1R–06, ISIS–M03–07 and CSA S806-06 design code equations reasonably predicted the deflections of the CFRP continuously supported slabs having under reinforcement at the bottom layer but underestimated deflections of continuous slabs with over-reinforcement at the bottom layer.

The purpose of the proposed research is to evaluate the mechanical response of stitched T-joints under tension, bending, and combined tensile-flexure loading. The use of fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites has increased in primary load-bearing structures due to their many attributes, such as their high strength and stiffness-to-weight ratio, and tailorability. Composite T-joints are often used in aerospace, marine, and wind turbine structures to provide load connectivity between orthogonal components, such as stiffeners to skins. However, one of the main drawbacks of polymer matrix composites is their low interlaminar strength, which can lead to delamination when subjected to out-of-plane loads. Techniques such as braiding, knitting, stitching, tufting, and z-pinning have been used to reinforce T-joints in the through-thickness direction. Most research has been focused on the tensile or bending behavior of T-joints, although these joints are often subjected to a combination of tensile and bending loads in service. A few experimental and analytical studies have been conducted on the mechanical response under combined tensile-flexure loading conditions, but no studies have been conducted on stitched T-joints. In this study, mechanical tests of 3D stitched and unstitched T-joints under tension, bending, and combined tensile-flexure were conducted, and the ultimate load, displacement, and absorbed energy were obtained. The average displacement at total failure under tension, bending, and combined tensile-flexure loading conditions for the stitched specimens were found to be 34%, 51%, and 24% greater, respectively, when compared to their unstitched counterparts. Similarly, the average absorbed energy for stitched specimens is 58%, 82%, and 51% greater under tension, bending, and combined tensile-flexure loading conditions. The failure surfaces of stitched and unstitched T-joints were analyzed using an optical microscope, and areas of interest, such as resin-rich regions, stitches, and different damage types, were identified. Furthermore, the skin-flange interface fracture surface of the combined loading T-joint specimens were analyzed using a scanning electron microscope. Significant differences in the fracture surface indicated varying degrees of mixed-mode loading conditions within a specimen for all specimen types. A numerical analysis of a stitched double cantilever beam specimen was conducted to evaluate smeared cohesive laws to represent stitched regions. Overall, stitching results in improved damage tolerance in T-joints subjected to various loading conditions.

The objective of this research project was to evaluate the mechanical, morphological, and permeability properties of electrospun blends of polydioxanone and poly(lactic acid) for application as vascular grafts. Mechanical analysis was performed by uniaxial tensile testing to examine the peak load, peak stress, elastic modulus, and strain at break of the fibrous materials. The morphological characteristics of the polymer blends were analyzed using phase contrast microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and image analysis software. Scanning electron microscopy and image analysis software were used to assess fiber diameter and pore size of electrospun scaffolds. Scaffold permeability measurements were also used to calculate fiber diameter and pore size, and the values were compared to those obtained using image analysis. The material property results acquired from the research suggest that the electrospun polymer blends have potential for use in vascular graft applications.

Ce travail présente les résultats d'un modèle théorique de précipitation de particules Al$_2$Cu dans un alliage d'aluminium de fonderie de type 319 traité thermiquement T7, prenant en compte les équations de la théorie de la coalescence. L'utilisation d'une distribution de taille de particules expérimentale discrétisée comme point de départ du modèle rend possible l'utilisation d'une équation de flux afin de modéliser l'évolution du rayon moyen des particules dans un élément de volume représentatif de l'alliage. L'utilisation d'un schéma numérique implicite permet de ramener la résolution du problème physique à l'inversion d'une matrice tridiagonale. Ainsi, l'évolution du rayon critique de coalescence, du nombre total et de la fraction volumique de précipités sont obtenus pour plusieurs vieillissements. Les résultats du modèle a été confrontés aux résultats des mesures expérimentales qui ont été réalisées à l'aide d'observations en microscopie électronique à transmission et qui ont permis une mesure de la taille des précipités. Ces derniers ont été assimilés à des sphères de volume équivalent aux plaquettes réelles et ont été analysés numériquement. Les résultats fournis par le modèle théorique sont en bon accord avec les mesures expérimentales et ont permis le couplage du modèle de coalescence avec un modèle micromécanique fondé sur la théorie des dislocations et calibré à l'aide d'essais de traction en température. Il permet de déterminer la limite d'élasticité de l'alliage pour un vieillissement jusqu'à 1000h compris entre 23°C et 300°C. La limite d'élasticité est alors assimilée à une somme de trois contraintes~: une contrainte liée à la friction de réseau (contrainte de Peierls), une contrainte liée au contournement des précipités par les dislocations (contrainte d'Orowan) et une contrainte liée à la présence de solution solide. Enfin, des essais de fatigue oligocyclique à différentes températures ont permis de déterminer les variables internes de la loi de comportement macroscopique. Il s'agit d'une loi élasto-viscoplastique de type Lemaitre et Chaboche, à laquelle la limite d'élasticité calculée par le modèle micromécanique est couplée. Ainsi, le comportement physique macroscopique de l'alliage est fonction de la coalescence des précipités. Des calculs 1D ou 3D, par éléments finis, permettent alors de déterminer le comportement général d'une culasse soumise à de la fatigue thermomécanique / This work highlights the results of a theoretical Al$_2$Cu particles coarsening model in a T7 thermal treated 319 aluminum alloy. As an input of the model, the experimental and discretised size distribution of the precipitates, in a 1$mu$m$^3$ representative volume element of the alloy, is used and coupled to a flux equation. The use of a numerical implicit scheme allows us to solve the problem by the inversion of a tridiagonal matrix. Thus, the evolution of the critical radius of coarsening, of the total number and of the volumical fraction of particles are modeled in a range of temperature going from 23°C to 300°C up to 1000h ageing time. Results were then compared to transmission electron microscope observations and are in good agreement with experimental measurements. Hence, the model was then coupled to a micro-mechanical model which is based on the theory of dislocations. It determines the real yield stress of the alloy generated by the interaction of the dislocations with the lattice (Peierls stress), with the precipitates (Orowan stress) and with the atoms in solid solution. Both models were then combined into a mechanical macro-scale model in order to represent the LCF behavior of the material. An elasto-viscoplastic law has been used and all the internal variables were experimentally determined using LCF stress/strain loops for the mechanical steady state. The simulation results are in good agreement with the experiments. Finally, 1D and 3D finite element computations could be run, taking into account the evolution of the microstructure during ageing and its impact on the evolution of the mechanical properties, to determine the head cylinder behavior under thermomechanical fatigue

The finite element method (FEM) has been widely applied to various medical imaging applications over the past two decades. The remarkable progress in high-resolution imaging techniques has allowed FEM to draw great research interests in computing trabecular bone (TB) stiffness from three-dimensional volumetric imaging. However, only a few results are available in literature on applying FEM to multi-row detector CT (MDCT) imaging due to the challenges posed by limited spatial resolution. The research presented here develops new methods to preserve TB structure connectivity and to generate high-quality mesh representation for FEM from relatively low resolution images available at MDCT imaging. Specifically, it introduced a space-variant hysteresis algorithm to threshold local trabecular structure that preserves structure connectivity. Also, mesh generation algorithms was applied to represent TB micro-architecture and mesh quality was compared with that generated by traditional methods. TB stiffness was computed using FEM simulation on micro-CT (µ-CT) and MDCT images of twenty two cadaveric specimens of distal tibia. Actual stiffness of those specimens were experimentally determined by mechanical testing and its correlation with computed stiffness was analyzed. The observed values of linear correlation (r2) between actual bone stiffness and computed stiffness from µ-CT and MDCT imaging were 0.95 and 0.88, respectively. Also, reproducibility of the FEM-based computed bone stiffness was determined from repeat MDCT scans of cadaveric specimens and the observed intra-class correlation coefficient was a high value of 0.98. Experimental results demonstrate the feasibility of application of FEM with high sensitivity and reproducibility on MDCT imaging of TB at distal tibia under in vivo condition.

The research contained within this thesis formed part of an Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) funded project based at Loughborough University, which aimed to investigate the use of additive manufacturing (AM), and in particular sintering technologies, for the production of running footwear sole units. Laser sintering (LS) is an AM process which produces parts directly from a computer aided design (CAD) file by selectively fusing successive layers of powdered material using a CO2 laser. LS imparts significant advantages over traditional manufacturing techniques including extensive design freedom, the ability to manipulate the local properties of a single material part as well as economical manufacture of bespoke items due to the elimination of tooling. Modifying the mechanical properties and/or geometry of sole units has been shown to provide benefits in the areas of performance, injury risk reduction and comfort, especially when considering elite athletes on a subject specific basis. Given the attributes of LS outlined above, the technology offers significant potential to produce sole units offering high added-value compared to conventional counterparts which are limited by the constraints of traditional processing techniques such as injection moulding. However, the mechanical capacity of LS polymers in context of such application was unknown. Accordingly, this research investigated the suitability of a laser sintered elastomer (LSE) material, in view of key selected mechanical properties, for the manufacture of running shoe midsoles. The midsole is the primary functional component in the sole unit of a running shoe used for distance running on hard surfaces. Following a preliminary assessment of the selected LSE (TPE 210-S), a new dynamic test method was designed to assess the compressive, fatigue and time dependent recovery properties of midsole material specimens under loading conditions representative of in-service use. The method was successfully implemented on an electro-mechanical test apparatus (previously unreported upon in literature) and used firstly, to benchmark the aforementioned properties of a range of ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) and polyurethane (PU) midsole foams representative of the range currently used in production, and secondly, to establish the same property set for TPE 210-S specimens produced across a range of laser powers (LP's). Initial cycle operating ranges in terms of key compressive properties were established for EVA and PU materials. All conventional variants showed considerable deterioration from these initial values over the 125,000 cycle test regime, but subsequently demonstrated partial recovery when left unloaded post-test. PU grades generally exhibited better fatigue performance and findings were consistent with those of previous studies. Whilst variation in LP facilitated linear variation in displacement and stiffness properties for TPE 210-S, all specimens yielded a stiffer and more elastic response than that of conventional foams at the outset; initial compressive operating ranges, whilst within close proximity, did not overlap. However, fatigue performance was found to be superior with only relatively small property changes occurring over the test regime regardless of LP. Furthermore, no signs of catastrophic specimen failure (e.g. cracking) were visually apparent. In this respect the material showed good suitability for midsole applications, but further work is required to address increasing the available compressive property range which fell outside the scope of this work.

The economical and environmental issues associated with fossil fuels have been urging the automotive industry to cut the fuel consumption and exhaust emission levels, mainly by reducing the weight of vehicles. However, customers increasing demands for safer, more powerful and luxurious vehicles have been adding more weight to the various categories of vehicles, even the smallest ones. Leading car manufacturers have shown that significant weight reduction, yet satisfying the growing demands of customers, would not be feasible without the extensive use of lightweight materials. Magnesium is the lightest constructional metal on earth, offering a great potential for weight-savings. However, magnesium and its alloys exhibit inferior ductility at low temperatures, limiting their practical sheet metal applications. Interestingly, some magnesium alloys exhibit superplastic behaviour at elevated temperatures; mirrored by the extraordinarily large ductility, surpassing that of conventional steels and aluminium alloys. Superplastic forming technique is the process used to form materials of such nature, having the ability to deliver highly-profiled, yet very uniform sheet-metal products, in one single stage. Despite the several attractions, the technique is not widely-used because of a number of issues and obstacles. This study aims at advancing the superplastic forming technique, and offering it as an efficient process for broader utilisation of magnesium alloys for sheet metal applications. The focus is primarily directed to the AZ31 magnesium alloy, since it is commercially available in sheet form, possesses good mechanical properties and high strength/weight ratio. A general multi-axial anisotropic microstructure-based constitutive model that describes the deformation behaviour during superplastic forming is first developed. To calibrate the model for the AZ31 magnesium alloy, systematic uniaxial and biaxial stretching tests are carried out over wide-ranging conditions, using 3 specially-designed fixtures. In a collaborative effort thereafter, the calibrated constitutive model is fed into a FE code in conjunction with a stability criterion, in order to accurately simulate, control and ultimately optimise the superplastic forming process. Special pneumatic bulge forming setup is used to validate some proposed optimisation schemes, by forming sheets into dies of various geometries. Finally, the materials post-superplastic-forming properties are investigated systematically, based on geometrical, mechanical and microstructural measures.