M.A. (Psychology) / Since Frank (1931) first published an article on premenstrual symptoms a considerable amount of research has been undertaken and published on the topic. Women have always been aware of experiencing certain intermittent physiological and psychological symptoms, but few have realised that these are often cyclical and relate to the menstrual cycle. In recent years there has been a move towards identifying these symptoms and seeking help and treatment in overcoming their sometimes debilitating effects. Previously women did not speak about their experiences and attributed them to various psychosocial stressors, but today women areacknowledging the fact that a syndrome or disorder does exist. This syndrome or disorder became known as the Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS) (Dalton, 1984). More recently a classification for premenstrual symptoms has appeared under Appendix A of the' DSM III-R. This is the section that deals with proposed diagnostic categories needing further study. In this classification premenstrual symptoms are termed Late Luteal Phase Dysphoric Disorder (LLPDD)...

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Magister Artium (Psychology) - MA(Psych) / Menstruation is an integral and normal part of human life, indeed of human existence. Instead of being celebrated as a noteworthy landmark of biological maturity in a young girl‟s life, menstruation has become an organic experience burdened with socio-cultural implications (Ussher, 2006). Existing studies suggest that males often view menstruation in a more negative light, which have shown to promote sexism and negative attitudes towards women (Marvan, Vazquez-Toboada, & Chrisler, 2013). The Menstrual Attitude Questionnaire (MAQ) was designed to assess attitudes towards menstruation among men and women and has been applied in a variety of contexts (Brooks-Gun and Ruble, 1980). Despite the extensive use of this scale in various contexts (Jarrah & Kamel, 2012; Neşe Sahin Ozdemir, 2013) there is limited information on its psychometric properties, specifically the factor structure of the instrument. For the MAQ to be meaningful when used in South Africa, it is first necessary to explore the psychometric properties of the instrument when applied to a South African sample. Participants (n = 163) for the study were young male students from the University of the Western Cape who were recruited through purposive sampling. Permission to access students was obtained from the registrar‟s office. Informed consent was obtained from participants for data collection and for use of the data for research purposes. The questionnaires were anonymous in order to protect participant identities. To further ensure confidentiality, all data was kept on a password protected personal computer. Furthermore, this study utilised a cross-sectional research design. Two self-report measures were administered: the MAQ and a demographic questionnaire. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was used to uncover the underlying structure of the MAQ. The study found that both the EFA, as well as the forced factor solution, did not produce a meaningful pattern of loadings. All ethical guidelines stipulated by the University of the Western Cape were strictly adhered to.

I assessed influences on women's attitudes toward and experiences with menarche and menstruation using feminist qualitative methodologies. Bronfenbrenner's ecological model interpreted through a feminist lens was the organizing framework for the study, focusing as it does on the sociohistorical and multilayered context wherein the women developed. Fourteen college women between the ages of 18 and 25 completed the Menstrual Attitude Questionnaire (MAQ) for Adult Females and engaged in open ended, tape-recorded interviews. Information was gathered related to their first menstrual period their current attitudes about menstruation, and factors they felt had influenced their beliefs about menstruation. Special attention was focused on women who have reclaimed menstruation as a positive, natural event. Four groups of women were created along the continuum of menstrual attitudes. Those categories included; (a) reclaimers, (b) positive, but not reclaimers, (c) middle, and (d) negative. Scores on the MAQ and interview transcripts were used to support my classification of women as reclaimers or as occupying another place along the continuum of menstrual attitudes. The aim of this study was to examine women's views of menstruation, with a focus on the aspects of a woman's life that have led her to possess reclaiming views or views elsewhere on the continuum of menstrual attitudes. Key factors in leading women to become reclaimers, included exposure to nontraditional attitudes and alternative menstrual products from one's peers in late adolescence or early adulthood. Reclaiming women also tended to be feminists and concerned about the environment. Knowing the factors in a woman's life that lead her to possess reclaiming views, makes it possible to develop educational programs that will help other women to view their bodies and natural bodily functions in an affirmative light. When women are able to accept their bodies and reject cultural messages that menstruation is a dirty event and something to be hidden, there is potential for all women's lives to be improved. It is time for more women to believe menstruation is a natural event, worthy of celebration and pride. / Graduation date: 2004

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Diss. (sammanfattning) : Karol. inst., 2001. / Härtill 5 uppsatser.

Although menstruation is typically regarded as an indication of health (Kissling, 1996), strong cultural messages about menstruation perpetuate the belief that it is dirty, disgusting and a state that must be managed (Ussher, 2006). Many women internalize this belief and go to great lengths to hide their menstrual status (Chrisler, 2007). Negative attitudes toward menstruation have been linked to decreased body satisfaction (Schooler, Ward, Meriwether, & Caruthers, 2005), perceptions of decreased competence and likability (Roberts, Goldenberg, Power, & Pyszynski, 2002), and the belief that menstruating women are more emotional, less attractive, and more irritable than non-menstruating women (Forbes, Adams-Curtis, White, & Holmgren, 2003). Whereas there is a relatively large body of literature regarding the significance of women and girls' experiences of menstruation, comparatively little is known about the development of men's attitudes towards menstruation. The lack of focus on how men learn and think about menstruation may have important implications on their attitudes toward women, particularly in their gendered relationships. Therefore, a grounded theory approach using semi-structured group interviews was used in this qualitative investigation. The purpose of the study was to better understand how perceive menstruation, where these ideas come from, and how their perceptions about menstruation may inform their view of women. Two group-interviews were performed and comprised of men in two different student-interest groups. During the interview process, participants described their childhood and present-day experiences with menstruation, including how they learned about menstruation, the messages they received, and how they think about menstruation in the present day. In addition, participants were each asked to create and describe an image depicting the way that they think about menstruation. A Grounded Theory approach was used to analyze the data. The emergent themes from this study were characterized by participant's feelings that they were too young to learn about menstruation in early adolescence and the internalization of dominant cultural messages that menstruation is not something that men should know or talk about. Participants were found to still hold these beliefs as adults, and also revealed they perceive menstruation to be associated with the display of heightened emotions and physical pain. Thus, menstruation was perceived as an overall negative event. Their negative associations with and feelings of disgust toward the presence of blood led to the development of means of avoiding menstruation (e.g. not talking about it and avoiding sexual encounters with menstruating partners). Overall, the participants indicated that they internalized three main beliefs about menstruation: (a) menstruation is associated with affective changes in women, (b) menstruation is irrelevant to men's lives, and (c), menstruation is disgusting because of its association with blood. The implications of the internalization of these beliefs for women, men and practitioners were discussed, and future directions were identified.

The present studies were designed to investigate responsiveness of women to laboratory pain. The purpose of this investigation was manifold in that the effects of several different variables on pain perception were examined. First, the studies sought to determine whether the experience of menstrual pain, otherwise known as dysmenorrhea, had any relationship to the perception of laboratory induced pain, namely, cold pressor pain. Second, it was asked whether menstrual phase had any relationship either on its own, or in interacting with dysmenorrhea, to pain perception. Third, based on observations from the two previous studies, it was asked whether age and/or previous experience of childbirth pain had any influence on pain perception. The first study employed a within-subjects design of young university women in order to investigate the relationship of dysmenorrhea and menstrual cycle phase to pain threshold, tolerance, and subjective pain intensity ratings. The second study employed a between-subjects design of young university women as well, in order to replicate the menstrual phase effect obtained in the first study. The third study employed a between-subjects design of older women as it dealt with the relationships of age and/or the experience of childbirth pain to the same measures of pain perception. It also dealt with defining further characteristics of dysmenorrhea as occurring in an older group of women (over 30 yrs of age). Results from the first two studies indicated a significant increase in pain sensitivity, measured as pain threshold, from the follicular to the luteal phase of the cycle but no overall significant effects of dysmenorrhea on laboratory-induced pain. In the second study, there was a significant interaction between menstrual phase and dysmenorrhea with respect to subjective pain ratings. These results partially replicated previous findings in the literature while employing a clinically relevant method of pain induction. Results from the third study indicated that previous experience of childbirth pain, independent of age, is a significant factor in the perception of laboratory-induced pain. These latter results have never before been reported in the pain literature and thus deserve further investigation. Possible implications for an adaptation-levels model are discussed. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

My documentary film, Chhau, investigates how chhaupdi is practices in Nepal today. During chhaupdi, woman must isolate themselves during their menstruation, refraining from taking part in daily activities such as preparing meals for the family, having dinner with the family, consume dairy products and going to scared places.